The early marking of time was simple enough, for we are told that the Arabs, by driving a spear or a staff into the sand of the desert, told the time of day. The shadow of the sun roughly gave those who were familiar with astronomy the lay of the land and the time, approximately. When the dial and the gnomon were understood, dialling became a popular science, and ere long the sundial on the church tower, in a public place, or in a private garden, told the time. Then came the marking of time by pocket dials—an advance which foreshadowed the watch which was to come.

The pocket dial was soon followed by mechanical clocks, the clock watch, and the more delicate work of the watchmaker. The watch has become more accurate in its marking of time by the introduction of machinery in its manufacture; and it is cheapened by competition, so that now every one for a mere trifle can carry in his pocket a watch by means of which he can tell accurately the hour of day, as Shakespeare has it in "As You Like It":—

Some further references to the sundial will be found in Chapter XVII, the sundial being one of the accompaniments of the old-world garden.

Clocks.

In "Chats on Old Copper and Brass" some mention is made of old clocks, and of the watch which grew in beauty and fineness of workmanship as it evolved from the watch-clock and the still earlier lantern and other old clocks, which were gradually introduced to supersede or supplement the earlier sundials. Very remarkable indeed are some of these household curios. The very movement of the clock, with its pendulum swinging to and fro and the loud tick which can be heard all over the room, gives a sort of venerated respect for the "grandfather," with its massive and often richly carved or inlaid oaken or mahogany case, making it an important piece of furniture in the room.

The Cromwellian lantern clock was beautiful in its way, and it may be regarded as the earliest type of commonly used domestic clocks, most of which were made at a later period than is denoted by the name of Cromwellian. They are, however, of a good respectable age, and are now really valuable household antiquities. The lantern clock may be regarded as the ancestor of the "grandfather," the works of which were protected by a wooden case. The evolution from the earlier type is quite easy to follow, for the wooden hood to protect the clock on the bracket shelf was added; then came the framed head, which was glazed, and eventually the lower case covering the weights.

Much has been written about "grandfathers" and the smaller variety commonly designated "grandmothers." The dials of the earlier specimens are of brass and have only the hour hand, an onward step being marked when the minute finger was added. The mechanical arrangement by which the days of the week and the month were indicated was a happy addition, although some would, doubtless, regard them as somewhat unnecessary. The collector of antiques is likely to be imposed upon unless he is acquainted with the technical construction of both works and frame or case, for it is not an uncommon thing to fit in a modern antique case a set of old works.

The timepiece is an innovation of comparatively recent days. From the first it became the central ornament on the mantelpiece, and many artists were employed in providing suitable designs and combining various materials to produce clocks in keeping with prevailing styles of furniture and decoration. The French clockmakers became experts as designers of the smaller and more varied cases of mantelpiece clocks, many fine examples of the Empire period ranking as art treasures as well as curios.

Fig. 86 represents an exceptionally fine example of a Gothic French clock, beautifully modelled, and in excellent condition. Some of the gilt clocks and side vases to match were bought as mantelpiece ornaments, rather than for their merit as timekeepers, although the best makers always put in reliable works—there were no such works as those made by machinery and sold so cheaply to-day!

The timepieces of early Victorian days are scarcely antiques, and few of them are treasured as such, although undoubtedly curious.

Watches.

The first step towards watches as we understand them was the manufacture of pocket clocks (many of which show Dutch influence in design), some of the cases of which were very beautiful. The watches which followed in due course were at first without glasses, and for the better protection of the works and of the delicate engravings and ornamentation of the backs and dials loose cases of metal or shagreen were made. Some of them were highly ornamental, little studs of gold or silver being arranged in geometrical and floral patterns on the exteriors. Two very pretty examples of such cases are shown in Fig. 88.

Many of the watch backs were chased and perforated and beautifully enamelled; the dials were covered with painted miniatures, and gold watches were enriched with jewels. From Switzerland and Nuremberg come many choice examples; but there were clever watchmakers in England too, among them John Stevens, of Colchester, a sixteenth-century watchmaker noted for his pierced and engraved brass-gilt cases.

Classical figures and designs showing Dutch influence became popular late in the seventeenth century; then fashions changed, and the Court of the Emperors of France exercised an influence over art in this and other countries, and watch cases and other lesser objects were made more or less in harmony. At one time curiously shaped cases were the fashion; at another octagonal watches, such as were made in the seventeenth century by Edmund Bull, of Fleet Street, who is said to have made an elliptic silver watch engraved all over with minute scriptural subjects.

The collection of watches is a hobby indulged in by but few; there are, however, many single examples included in household curios, and not infrequently several handsomely engraved old watch cases are seen exhibited in the modern glass-topped curio tables so fashionable in twentieth-century drawing-rooms—now and then the interest in them being increased by the musical bells of the repeaters, many of which were made a century or more ago.

Watch Keys.

Keyless watches have been invented within the memory of most of us; it is obvious, therefore, that old watches were supplied with old keys, many of which were curious in form. The collector in search of a small group of collectable curios finds the watch key an excellent variety on which to specialize. When larger clocks were supplemented by the pocket watch, the loose key with which to wind it up naturally took the form of the larger clock keys. Such keys soon became more ornamental, for they were either carried in the pocket or attached to a chatelaine or bunch of keys; many of the bows were modelled on the pattern of other keys on the bunch.

In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 87, some little idea may be formed of the early developments. The three keys in the upper row are of the clock-winder type, showing the gradual improvement in their formation. Then came a development of the metal keys, mostly of brass, the engraving and modelling of the key itself being improved, the ornamentation being supplemented by enamelling. The watch key ultimately became very ornate, for the more precious metals were gradually introduced, and rich enamels, rare gems and stones, and Wedgwood cameos were added.

Pinchbeck metal was very much used for watch keys, the fob seals remaining in fashion until knee breeches went out. Some of the French keys are extremely decorative, and many cut and polished steel keys are worth collecting. It is said that Switzerland is one of the happy hunting-grounds of the watch-key collector, but there are many curio shops, both on the Continent and in this country, where fancy keys can be bought still at reasonable prices. In some localities special designs and metal have been made. Thus it is said that in Holland the silver keys of large size were long favoured, and many of these are still on sale. Another special feature about these curios is that makers at one time specialized on trade emblems, and it is quite possible to get together an interesting collection representing the attributes of musicians, butchers, bakers, and horticulturists, one signifying the latter industry being shown in Fig. 87, that on the left-hand corner of the lower row being fashioned in the form of a spade and a rake.

Watch Stands.

There are some very quaint old wood watch stands used chiefly as the temporary home of the watch at night, although some seem to have been permanently used by those who possessed a second watch. Some of the wood carvings were covered with old gilt; others were relieved in colours. Some were classic in design; others were like the little French clocks of the Empire period. Some were shaped like musical instruments, and others of more elaborate forms of decoration represent Mercury and Hercules supporting the watch stand. Some of the most beautiful are made of French lacquer and ornamented in the Vernis Martin style. To these may be added watch stands of marble, and curious inlays, of papier-machÉ and japanned wares, and some of brass and bronze.