The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition make one paragraph. A paragraph, therefore, is the treatment of one of the natural divisions of a subject. The length depends on the topic to be treated. Two cautions may be given: 1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence. Such paragraphs do not represent divisions of the subject. They are simply statements which have not been expanded as they deserve, or they are sentences that should be placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order to make a good paragraph. Some business men in their letters and advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph too frequently to concentrate the attention of the reader. A writer divides his composition into paragraphs in order to aid the reader to follow the thoughts he is presenting. When the reader sees the indentation that indicates a new paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that he intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to open a new topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph is simply another sentence on the same topic as the preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky effect of the following extract from a letter: We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue, which gives illustrations and prices of all our stock. The illustrations are all made from actual photographs and are faithful in representing the shoe described. Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases, thus lessening freight bills and eliminating the annoyance of shortage claims because they cannot be opened without immediate detection. Errors of any kind should be reported without delay. Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our inspection; otherwise no allowance will be made. 2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of great length. Much depends, of course, on the matter to be treated, but, as a rule, in a student's theme a paragraph should be not longer than one page. If one of the divisions of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it, allowing a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions. Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat but one topic; from the first sentence to the last, it should be the development of one idea. Moreover, this topic must be revealed to the reader in no unmistakable way. Sometimes the subject is so simple that the topic may easily be gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the topic. This is called the topic sentence. It may be at or near the beginning; in this case the rest of the paragraph defines or illustrates what it states. It may, however, be found at almost any point in the paragraph, not infrequently acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the details that have been presented. A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes ends with a sentence of conclusion. The first sentence states the topic, the following sentences explain or illustrate it, and the last sentence summarizes or otherwise indicates that the topic has been completed. This form has been called the hammock paragraph, because it has a solid "post" at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between. It is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given subjects, when each paragraph is to stand alone, complete in itself, not forming part of a longer composition. The practice of writing such paragraphs induces clear, forceful thinking. Exercise 208 Study the following paragraphs for— 1. Topic sentence, if there is one. 2. Development of the topic. 3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one. 1 The problem in many large firms is how to develop office efficiency to the highest possible degree. In this respect the monthly examination scheme has been found a great success. The examination consists of a list of questions about merchandise and business procedure. The questions are given out on the last Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned for criticism on the following Wednesday. The employees are told that they may consult as many authorities as they wish, but each man must write his own paper. A poor percentage in three of these tests usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are dropped, and the ambitious who have studied are recognized. The vice-president of one concern that uses this system says that it is a strong reminder to his men that they must make themselves worthy of the organization. Besides maintaining an even standard of efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a number of valuable executives, whose latent powers were brought out by the rigidness of the tests. 2 Every month the department head in one big eastern concern, watch in hand, times a large force of typists individually, testing how rapidly they can write a letter of 200 words from their shorthand notes. Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable influence in bringing stenographers up to grade in their daily work, because a good examination mark is reduced one-half by careless daily work, and a poor examination mark correspondingly raised by excellent daily work. When both examination average and daily average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is increased; when both are below good, the stenographer is dismissed. In this way the standard of stenographic work is kept high. 3 In his effort to succeed many a young business man overlooks the detail of business courtesy. He does not realize the value that a buyer places upon that commodity. The more experienced man, however, knows that courtesy does more to hold a buyer than do bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have incurred great expense to fit up rest rooms where customers may spend an idle hour, write letters on stationery that is provided, and read the latest magazines. In the rural districts, where such luxuries are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for his customers and a place for stationing their teams. The country merchant, however, can often accomplish his object more quickly than the city dealer by spending an hour gossiping with his customers. He recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered when the proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor does, that if a buyer feels at home in his store, sales are practically guaranteed. 4 The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly slope that leads up to the watershed among the mountains on the western coast, is not unlike that of Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway from Christiania to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly country of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a prominent part in the scenery. There were dark stretches of forest on the hilltops and in the valleys; rivers filled with floating logs; sawmills beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted white; and rail-fences around the fields. The people seemed sturdy, prosperous, independent. They had the familiar habit of coming down to the station to see the train arrive and depart. We might have fancied ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut valley if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the Norwegian speech and the uniform politeness of the railway officials. —Van Dyke: Fisherman's Luck. 5 The plan of the Spectator must be allowed to be both original and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in the series may be read with pleasure separately; yet the five or six hundred essays form a whole, and a whole which has the interest of a novel. It must be remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a —Macaulay: Essay on Addison. Exercise 209 Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following topic sentences: 1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the details that will explain the word cheerful.) 2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went on merrily. (Give the details that will help one get the picture.) 3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what ways are they helpful? If possible, use examples to illustrate the point.) 4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing that those of winter are more enjoyable.) 5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless. (Develop by using examples.) 6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it. 7. Farm lands vary in price. 8. The farmer feeds the world. 9. Every department store should have regular fire drills. 10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement. Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will represent the divisions in thought. If there are any topic sentences, underline them. 1 I have often noticed that every one has his own individual small economies, careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction, any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in which some of his money was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless bankbook. Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in. The only way in which he could reconcile himself to such a waste of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of acceptance to an invitation written on only one of the sides. I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together, —Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford. 2 Dear Madam: We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats No. SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62 is not a regular stock number, but represents a collection of $5, $6, and $7.50 coats remaining after the holiday sales and reduced to insure their Yours truly, Exercise 211 Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For example, if you were going to write on the process of making a layer cake, you would explain in detail the different ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of each, and the steps in the process before the product could be sold as a layer cake. By the use of explanatory details develop the following: 1. Making a kite. 2. Making a baseball. 3. Making fudge. 4. How to play checkers. 5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery). 6. The manufacture of a tin can. 7. The manufacture of pins. 8. Every man must have an ambition. 9. Why I intend to enter business. 10. The greatest modern invention. By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop the following: 1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant. 3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives. 4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen. 5. Young Americans have little respect for authority. By the use of comparison and contrast develop the following: 1. Improvements in modern lighting systems. 2. Improvements in modern heating systems. 3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion. 4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study. 5. Why I intend to have a business of my own. 6. The study that I like best. By explaining cause and effect develop the following: 1. The advantages of public gymnasiums. 2. The success of loose leaf devices. 3. The objections to football. Exercise 212 Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be able to show what method or methods you have employed: 1. A man who cannot read and write English should not be allowed to vote. 2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit. 3. Women—the mothers of children—should vote. 4. Women should not vote because they do not read the newspaper. 5. The effect of school slang is bad. 6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become real. 7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United States. 8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with Canada. 9. Our forests should be preserved. 10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from carelessness. 11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is too great. 12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil. 13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries. 14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our city parks. 15. Every boy should learn a trade. 16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their wares. 17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation week (or any celebration). 18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up breakfasts. 19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient than with the old-fashioned kind. 20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer than before. 21. A mixed diet is best. 22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread disease. 23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the express companies. 24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed with profit. 25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases. 26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to promote the best interests of children. 27. One of the best enactments of our time is the Child Labor Law. Exercise 213—Smooth Connection We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection between sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing to learn. Primarily, it depends on clear thinking. In Exercise 135 we saw that the idea of one sentence must grow out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same with paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually from one to the next. Each paragraph, we know, represents a unit within the larger unit of the composition; each represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the thought of one division differs considerably from the thought of the next. The tying together of such units is sometimes hard. It may be done in one of the following ways: 1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph or sentence part of the preceding paragraph or sentence. 2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before. 3. By using connecting links, sometimes called transition In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected according to (1) above; the second and third are connected according to (3) above. There comes to every prosperous man a time when he wishes to know the best way of securing a steady income from his accumulated savings without the burden of responsibility of managing some property in order to gain his income. The merchant may not wish to put back into the business all the earnings he gets from it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The farmer may wish to give up active work, but he realizes how soon his broad acres may deteriorate through soil-robbery when he rents his property "on shares." With such a problem before him the thoughtful man makes an effort to learn how to act to secure a good income all his life. One of the first things he learns, if he studies the situation carefully, is that there is a wide difference between an income derived from one's business ability, such as the profit secured from running a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and the income which is derived as the result of money "working" by itself. In the first case, a man must of necessity keep up his business responsibilities; in the other, once he has selected a safe investment, practically all he has to do is to collect his income from time to time as it falls due. There is in the latter no depreciation of land, buildings, machinery, or the like; no insurance payments to worry about; no crop failures to consider. It is evident, then, that if one wishes to put surplus money away—say the proceeds from the sale of a business or a farm—and Exercise 214 In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis Stevenson's The Philosophy of Nomenclature, point out all the transition words that join (1) sentence to sentence, and (2) paragraph to paragraph: To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself felt from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember the pride with which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert Bruce, and Robert le Diable as my name-fellows; and the feeling of sore disappointment that fell on my heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did not share with me a single one of my numerous praenomina. Look at the delight with which two children find they have the same name. They are friends from that moment forth; they have a bond of union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats. This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our names lose their freshness and interest, become trite and indifferent. But this, dear reader, is merely one of the sad effects of those "shades of the prison house" which come gradually betwixt us and nature with advancing years; it affords no weapon against the philosophy of names. In after life, although we fail to trace its working, that name which careless godfathers lightly applied to your unconscious infancy will have been moulding your character and influencing with irresistible power the whole course of your earthly fortunes. But the last name is no whit less important as a condition of success. Family names, we must recollect, are but inherited nicknames; and if the sobriquet were applicable to the ancestor, it is most likely applicable to the descendant also. You would not expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr. M'Lumpha excelling as a professor of dancing. Therefore, in what follows, we shall consider names, independent of whether they are first or last. And to begin with, look what a pull Cromwell had over Pym—the one name full of a resonant imperialism, the other mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a degree. Who would expect eloquence from Pym—who would read poems by Pym—who So much for people who are badly named. Now for people who are too well named, who go topheavy from the font, who are baptized into a false position, and who find themselves beginning life eclipsed under the fame of some of the great ones of the past. A man, for instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an apposition with the author of Hamlet. His own name coming after is such an anti-climax. "The plays of William Shakespeare?" says the reader—"O no! The plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill," and he throws the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views, Mr. John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us in this favored town, has never attempted to write an epic, but has Exercise 215 Turn back to Exercise 210, 1. How are the different paragraphs that you have made connected? |