Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.

The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.

The government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.

The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.

t connect nothing but the adjectives.

OBS. 16.—To avoid repetition, even of the little word the, we sometimes, with one article, join inconsistent qualities to a plural noun;—that is, when the adjectives so differ as to individualize the things, we sometimes make the noun plural, in stead of repeating the article: as, "The north and south poles;" in stead of, "The north and the south pole."—"The indicative and potential moods;" in stead of "The indicative and the potential mood."—"The Old and New Testaments;" in stead of, "The Old and the New Testament." But, in any such case, to repeat the article when the noun is made plural, is a huge blunder; because it implies a repetition of the plural noun. And again, not to repeat the article when the noun is singular, is also wrong; because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing. Thus, to say, "The north and south pole" is certainly wrong, unless we mean by it, one pole, or slender stick of wood, pointing north and south; and again, to say, "The north and the south poles," is also wrong, unless we mean by it, several poles at the north and others at the south. So the phrase, "The Old and New Testament" is wrong, because we have not one Testament that is both Old and New; and again, "The Old and the New Testaments," is wrong, because we have not several Old Testaments and several New ones: at least we have them not in the Bible.

OBS. 17.—Sometimes a noun that admits no article, is preceded by adjectives that do not describe the same thing; as, "Never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together."—Blair's Rhet., p. 146. This means, "metaphorical language and plain language;" and, for the sake of perfect clearness, it would perhaps be better to express it so. "For as intrinsic and relative beauty must often be blended in the same building, it becomes a difficult task to attain both in any perfection."—Karnes, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 330. That is, "intrinsic beauty and relative beauty" must often be blended; and this phraseology would be better. "In correspondence to that distinction of male and female sex."—Blair's Rhet., p. 74. This may be expressed as well or better, in half a dozen other ways; for the article may be added, or the noun may be made plural, with or without the article, and before or after the adjectives. "They make no distinction between causes of civil and criminal jurisdiction."— Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 302. This means—"between causes of civil and causes of criminal jurisdiction;" and, for the sake of perspicuity, it ought to have been so written,—or, still better, thus: "They make no distinction between civil causes and criminal."

NOTES TO RULE I.

NOTE I.—When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel; as, "With the talents of an angel, a man may be a fool."—Young.

NOTE II.—The article an or a must never be so used as to relate, or even seem to relate, to a plural noun. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "I invited her to spend a day in viewing a seat and gardens."—Rambler, No. 34. Say, "a seat and its gardens."

NOTE III.—When nouns are joined in construction, with different adjuncts, different dependence, or positive contrast, the article, if it belong at all to the latter, must be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors."—Wm. Penn. Say, "the merit." So the article in brackets is absolutely necessary to the sense and propriety of the following phrase, though not inserted by the learned author: "The Latin introduced between the Conquest and [the] reign of Henry the Eighth."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 42.

NOTE IV.—When adjectives are connected, and the qualities belong to things individually different, though of the same name, the article should be repeated: as, "A black and a white horse;"—i. e., two horses, one black and the other white. "The north and the south line;"—i. e., two lines, running east and west.

NOTE V.—When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated: as, "A black and white horse;"—i. e., one horse, piebald. "The north and south line;"—i. e., one line, running north and south, like a meridian. NOTE VI.—When two or more individual things of the same name are distinguished by adjectives that cannot unite to describe the same thing, the article must be added to each if the noun be singular, and to the first only if the noun follow them in the plural: as, "The nominative and the objective case;" or, "The nominative and objective cases."—"The third, the fifth, the seventh, and the eighth chapter;" or, "The third, fifth, seventh, and eighth chapters." [338]

NOTE VII.—When two phrases of the same sentence have any special correspondence with each other, the article, if used in the former, is in general required also in the latter: as, "For ye know neither the day nor the hour."—Matt., xxv, 13. "Neither the cold nor the fervid are formed for friendship."—Murray's Key, p. 209. "The vail of the temple was rent in twain, from the top to the bottom."—Matt., xxvii, 51.

NOTE VIII.—When a special correspondence is formed between individual epithets, the noun which follows must not be made plural; because the article, in such a case, cannot be repeated as the construction of correspondents requires. Thus, it is improper to say, "Both the first and second editions" or, "Both the first and the second editions" for the accurate phrase, "Both the first and the second edition;" and still worse to say, "Neither the Old nor New Testaments" or, "Neither the Old nor the New Testaments" for the just expression, "Neither the Old nor the New Testament." Yet we may say, "Neither the old nor the new statutes" or, "Both the early and the late editions;" for here the epithets severally apply to more than one thing.

NOTE IX.—In a series of three or more terms, if the article is used with any, it should in general be added either to every one, or else to the first only. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "Through their attention to the helm, the sails, or rigging."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 11. Say, "the rigging."

NOTE X.—As the article an or a denotes "one thing of a kind," it should not be used as we use the, to denote emphatically a whole kind; and again, when the species is said to be of the genus, no article should be used to limit the latter. Thus some will say, "A jay is a sort of a bird;" whereas they ought to say, "The jay is a sort of bird." Because it is absurd to suggest, that one jay is a sort of one bird. Yet we may say, "The jay is a bird," or, "A jay is a bird;" because, as every species is one under the genus, so every individual is one under both.

NOTE XI.—The article should not be used before the names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences, in their general sense; before terms that are strictly limited by other definitives; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently definite without it: as, "Falsehood is odious."—"Iron is useful."—"Beauty is vain."—"Admiration is useless, when it is not supported by domestic worth"—Webster's Essays, p. 30.

NOTE XII.—When titles are mentioned merely as titles; or names of things, merely as names or words; the article should not be used before them: as, "He is styled Marquis;" not, "the Marquis," or, "a Marquis,"—"Ought a teacher to call his pupil Master?"—"Thames is derived from the Latin name Tam~esis."

NOTE XIII.—When a comparison or an alternative is made with two nouns, if both of them refer to the same subject, the article should not be inserted before the latter; if to different subjects, it should not be omitted: thus, if we say, "He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different qualifications of the same man; but if we say, "He is a better teacher than a poet," we speak of different men, in regard to the same qualification.

NOTE XIV.—The definite article, or some other definitive, (as this, that, these, those,) is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who or which in a restrictive clause; as, "All the men who were present, agreed to it."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 145. "The thoughts which passion suggests are always plain and obvious ones."—Blair's Rhet., p. 468. "The things which are impossible with men, are possible with God."—Luke, xviii, 27. See Etymology, Chap. V, Obs. 26th, &c., on Classes of Pronouns.

NOTE XV.—The article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun; as, "The completing of this, by the working-out of sin inherent, must be by the power and spirit of Christ in the heart."—Wm. Penn. "They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh."—Isaiah, lxvi, 24. "For the dedicating of the altar."—Numb., vii, 11.

NOTE XVI.—The article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun; as, "For the dedicating the altar."—"He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, and let dedicating and giving here stand as participles only; for in the construction of nouns, they must have not only a definitive before them, but the preposition of after them.

NOTE XVII.—The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position, of this part of speech. For example: "When the verb is a passive, the agent and object change places."—Lowth's Gram., p. 73. Better: "When the verb is passive, the agent and the object change places." "Comparisons used by the sacred poets, are generally short."—Russell's Gram., p. 87. Better: "The comparisons," &c. "Pronoun means for noun, and is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun."—Infant School Gram., p. 89. Say rather: "The pronoun is put for a noun, and is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of the noun." Or: "The word PRONOUN means for noun; and a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I.

[Fist][The examples of False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, are to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.]

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—AN OR A.

"I have seen an horrible thing in the house of Israel."—Hosea, vi, 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article an is used before horrible, which begins with the sound of the consonant h. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a; thus, "I have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel."]

"There is an harshness in the following sentences."—Priestley's Gram., p. 188. "Indeed, such an one is not to be looked for."—Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen."—Ib., p. 263. "Land with them had acquired almost an European value."—Webster's Essays, p. 325. "He endeavoured to find out an wholesome remedy."—Neef's Method of Ed., p. 3. "At no time have we attended an Yearly Meeting more to our own satisfaction."—The Friend, v, 224. "Addison was not an humourist in character."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 303. "Ah me! what an one was he?"—Lily's Gram., p. 49. "He was such an one as I never saw."—Ib. "No man can be a good preacher, who is not an useful one."—Blair's Rhet., p. 283. "An usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."—Ib., p. 200. "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse."—Locke's Essay, p. 298. "An universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."—Priestley's Gram., p. 154. "Architecture is an useful as well as a fine art."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335. "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve an uniform signification."—Nutting's Gram., p. 78. "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit."—Johnson's Life of Morin. "Resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity."—Rambler, No. 185. "His bravery, we know, was an high courage of blasphemy."—Pope. "Hyssop; a herb of bitter taste."—Pike's Heb. Lex., p. 3.

"On each enervate string they taught the note
To pant, or tremble through an Eunuch's throat."—Pope.

UNDER NOTE II.—AN OR A WITH PLURALS.

"At a sessions of the court in March, it was moved," &c.—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 61. "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept a memoranda."—Duchess D'Abrantes, p. 26. "I took another dictionary, and with a scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."—A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict., p. 12. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, of a forty-five years old."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 338. "And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings."—Luke, ix, 28." There were slain of them upon a three thousand men."—1 Mac., iv, 15." Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed another Alps of snow."—Addison, Tat., No. 161. "To make them a satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."—Goldsmith's Greece, p. 187. "As a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered."—Barclay's Works, i, 506. "It makes indeed a little amends, by inciting us to oblige people."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 229. "A large and lightsome backstairs leads up to an entry above."—Ib., p. 260. "Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest."—Murray's Gram., p. 162; Smith's, 138. "With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on."—Robertson's America, i, 166. "In the midst of a thick woods, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."—G. B. "The flats look almost like a young woods."—Morning Chronicle. "As we went on, the country for a little ways improved, but scantily."—Essex County Freeman, Vol. ii, No. 11. "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a seventy years captivity at Babylon."—Rollin's An. Hist., Vol. ii, p. 20. "He did riot go a great ways into the country."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 85.

"A large amends by fortune's hand is made,
And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."—Rowe's Lucan, iv, 1241.

UNDER NOTE III.—NOUNS CONNECTED.

"As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 117. "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and softness of its pause."—Ib., ii, 113. "Before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass."—Dryden. "The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."—Murray's Gram., ii, 292. "In proportion as the taste of a poet, or orator, becomes more refined."—Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "A situation can never be intricate, as long as there is an angel, devil, or musician, to lend a helping hand."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 285. "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or bone broken."—"Not a word was uttered, nor sign given."—Brown's Inst., p. 125. "I despise not the doer, but deed."—Ibid. "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound."—Lowth. "The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."— Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 115.

UNDER NOTE IV.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It is proper that the vowels be a long and short one."—Murray's Gram., p. 327. "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before."—Ib., p. 70; Fisk's, 72. "There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 8. "The numbers are two; Singular and Plural."—Ib., p. 80; Gould's, 77. "The persons are three; First, Second, [and] Third."—Adam, et al. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective."—Comly's Gram., p. 19; Ingersoll's, 21. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive."— Bullions's E. Gram., p. 35; Lennie's, 20. "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and plural."—Bradley's Gram., p. 82. "To distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence."—Murray's Gram., p. 280; Comly's, 163; Ingersoll's, 292. "The first and last of which are compounded members."—Lowth's Gram., p. 123. "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner."—Blair's Rhet., p. 183. "The passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future conversation."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 69. "There are two voices; the Active and Passive."—Adam's Gram., p. 59; Gould's, 87. "Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 7. "To feel the force of a compound, or derivative word."—Town's Analysis, p. 4. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions."—Murray's Gram., p. 150; Ingersoll's, 233. "E has a long and short sound in most languages."— Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 13. "When the figurative and literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and Phoenician stand in connection."—CONANT: Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 28. "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and Swedish."—Fowler, ib., p. 31.

UNDER NOTE V.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"The path of truth is a plain and a safe path"—Murray's Key, p. 236. "Directions for acquiring a just and a happy elocution."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 144. "Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 9. "How can it choose but wither in a long and a sharp winter."—Cowley's Pref., p. vi. "Into a dark and a distant unknown."—Chalmers, on Astronomy, p. 230. "When the bold and the strong enslaved his fellow man."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 21. "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence." —Murray's Gram., p. 306. "And hence arises a second and a very considerable source of the improvement of taste."—Blair's Rhet., p. 18. "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion."—Ib., p. 50. "The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation."— Dr. M'Rie. "A great and a good man looks beyond time."—Brown's Institutes, p. 125. "They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance." —Ib. "The light and the worthless kernels will float."—Ib. "I rejoice that there is an other and a better world."—Ib. "For he is determined to revise his work, and present to the publick another and a better edition."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 7. "He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority."—Murray's Gram., p. 172: see Priestley's, 147. "There is however another and a more limited sense."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 232.

UNDER NOTE VI.—ARTICLES OR PLURALS.

"This distinction forms, what are called the diffuse and the concise styles."—Blair's Rhet., p. 176. "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic and the Asiatic manners."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 83. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and the French monarchies under the former was laid."— Bolingbroke, on History, p. 180. "In the solemn and the poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 68. "They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 151; Ingersoll's, 239; R. G. Smith's, 127. "They are named the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the SUPERLATIVE degrees."—Smart's Accidence, p. 27. "Certain Adverbs are capable of taking an Inflection, namely, that of the comparative and the superlative degrees."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §321. "In the subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 187; Fisk's, 131. "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 145. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?"—Ib., p. 116. "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb."—Ib., p. 55. "The verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative."—Ib., p. 47. "They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stresses."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. "In a sonnet the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth line rhyme to each other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh line; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth line; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth line."—Churchill's Gram., p. 311. "The iron and the golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."—Wright's Athens, p. 74. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden ages are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."—Ib. "An Exposition of the Old and New Testament."—Matthew Henry's Title-page. "The names and order of the books of the Old and New Testament."—Friends' Bible, p. 2; Bruce's, p. 2; et al. "In the second and third person of that tense."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 81. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 59. "Among whom arose the Italian, the Spanish, the French, and the English languages."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 111. "Whence arise these two, the singular and the plural Numbers."—Burn's Gram., p. 32.

UNDER NOTE VII.—CORRESPONDENT TERMS.

"Neither the definitions, nor examples, are entirely the same with his."—Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. vi. "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and expression."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 24. "Between the adjective and following substantive."—Ib. ii, 104. "Thus, Athens became both the repository and nursery of learning."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 28. "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and Latin."—Ib., p. 102. "He shows that Christ is both the power and wisdom of God."—The Friend, x, 414. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and living."—Rom., xiv, 9. "This is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 209. "Sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood."—Adam's Gram., p. 155; Gould's, 158. "In some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously."—Adam, p. 156; Gould, 159. "Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."—Adam, p. 157; Gould, 160. "Many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself."—Pope. "The verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification."—Murray's Gram., p. 108. "How shall we distinguish between the friends and enemies of the government?"—Webster's Essays, p. 352. "Both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in those measures."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 260. "As the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 245. "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory."—Kames, on Crit., ii, 39.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR.

"When both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable, they are called a Circumflex or Wave."—Kirkham's Elocution, pp. 75 and 104. "The word that is used both in the nominative and objective cases."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 69. "But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated at large."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 81. "Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods."—Ib., p. 82. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."—Ib., p. 207. "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense."—Ib., p. 208. "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or English languages."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 7. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb, as between the active and passive forms."—Nixon's Parser, p. 13.

UNDER NOTE IX.—A SERIES OF TERMS.

"As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and husbandman."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 24. "They may be divided into four classes—the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools."—Smith's New Gram., p. iii. "Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 138; L. Murray's, 68; R. C. Smith's, 27; Alger's, 28. "Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 2. "Should give is an irregular verb active, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural."—Ibid. "Us is a personal pronoun, first person plural, and in the objective case."—Ibid. "Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case."—Ibid. "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, of admiration, or a parenthesis."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 47. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 263. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, Second, and the Third."—Ib., p. 34. "John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by wife, by Rule I."—Smith's New Gram., p. 48. "Nouns in the English language have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and objective."—Barrett's Gram., p. 13; Alexander's, 11. "The Potential [mood] has four [tenses], viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 96.

"Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend,
And own the patron, patriot, and the friend."—Savage, to Walpole.

UNDER NOTE X.—SPECIES AND GENUS.

"A pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun."—Paul's Accidence, p. 11. "A verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."—Ib., p. 15. "A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb."—Ib., p. 38. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification."—Ib., p. 40. "A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together."—Ib., p. 41. "A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."—Ib., p. 42. "An interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind."—Ib., p. 44. "An enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 343. "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory."—Ib.: Blair, 151; Mur., 341. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art."—HARRIS: in Priestley's Gram., p. 176. "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."—Churchill's Gram., p. 71. "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor, that I may show the figure to full advantage."—Blair's Rhet., p. 143. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as a whole put for the part, or a part for a whole; the species for the genus, or a genus for the species."—Ib., p. 142. "It shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 69. "Cleon was another sort of a man."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 124. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of a reserved body."—Ib., ii, 12. "This part of speech is called a verb."—Mack's Gram., p. 70. "What sort of a thing is it?"—Hiley's Gram., p. 20. "What sort of a charm do they possess?"—Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., p. 73.

"Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole,
That painful animal, a Mole."—Note to Dunciad, B. ii, l. 207.

UNDER NOTE XI.—ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE.

"Either thou or the boys were in the fault."—Comly's Key, in Gram., p. 174. "It may, at the first view, appear to be too general."—Murray's Gram., p. 222; Ingersoll's, 275. "When the verb has a reference to future time."—Ib.: M., p. 207; Ing., 264. "No; they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 165. "The dislike of the English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax."—Russell's Gram., p. iv. "Is that ornament in a good taste?"—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 326. "There are not many fountains in a good taste."—Ib., ii, 329. "And I persecuted this way unto the death."—Acts, xxii, 4. "The sense of the feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of extension."—Blair's Rhet., p. 196. "The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only."—Murray's Gram., p. 165; Lowth's, 89. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other parts of speech."—Blair's Rhet., p. 84. "By the certain muscles which operate all at the same time."—Murray's Gram., p. 19. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in the general concerning them."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 112. "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language."—Murray's Gram., p. 319.

UNDER NOTE XII.—TITLES AND NAMES.

"He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman."—Brown's Inst., p. 126. "Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector."—Ib. "Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl."—Ib. "The chief magistrate is styled a President."—Ib. "The highest title in the state is that of the Governor."—Ib. "That boy is known by the name of the Idler."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 205. "The one styled the Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Banging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class a tree."—Blair's Rhet., p. 73. "For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of objects."—Ib., p. 73. "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure."—Ib., p. 133. "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 217. "We hesitate to determine, whether the Tyrant alone, is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the spy."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 246. "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into a twelve-month; seven nights into se'night; fourteen nights into a fortnight."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 105.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES.

"He is a better writer than a reader."—W. Allen's False Syntax, Gram., p. 332. "He was an abler mathematician than a linguist."—Ib. "I should rather have an orange than apple."—Brown's Inst., p. 126. "He was no less able a negotiator, than a courageous warrior."—Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. i, p. 181. "In an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 186. "That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball."—Harris's Hermes, p. 258.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH.

"Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."—Inst., p. 126. "The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time."—Ib. "Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation."—Murray's Gram., p. 279; Comly's, 162; Ingersoll's, 291. "The work is designed for the use of persons, who may think it merits a place in their Libraries."—Murray's Gram., 8vo., p. iii. "That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."—Ib., p. 298. "Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, do not reflect."—Ib., p. 75. "Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession."—Ib., p. 132. "To these may be added verbs, which chiefly among the poets govern the dative."—Adam's Gram., p. 170; Gould's, 171. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."—Bucke's Gram., p. 9. "To employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar."—Murray's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing or relation."—Ib., i, p. 204. "So that things which are seen, were not made of things which do appear."—Heb., xi, 3. "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter sounds, which he has heard."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 21. "But men, whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."—Webster's Essays, p. 5.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

"Great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories."—Sewel's Hist., p. iii. "And some attempts were made towards writing of history."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 110. "It is Invading of the Priest's Office for any other to Offer it."—Right of Tythes, p. 200. "And thus far of forming of verbs."—Walker's Art of Teaching, p. 35. "And without shedding of blood is no remission."—Heb., ix, 22. "For making of measures we have the best method here in England."—Printer's Gram. "This is really both admitting and denying, at once."—Butler's Analogy, p. 72. "And hence the origin of making of parliaments."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 71. "Next thou objectest, that having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion presupposeth having light and grace."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 143. "They cried down wearing of rings and other superfluities as we do."—Ib., i, 236. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel."—1 Peter, iii, 3. "In spelling of derivative Words, the Primitive must be kept whole."—British Gram., p. 50; Buchanan's Syntax, 9. "And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar."—Numbers, vii, 10. "Boasting is not only telling of lies, but also many unseemly truths."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 244. "We freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."—Barclay, i, 316. "For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."—Inst. E. Gram., p. 126. "He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state."—Rollin's Ancient Hist., Vol. ii, p. 38.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. "It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in."—Barclay, i, 210. "For in the receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt eased."—Ib., i, 469. "True regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."—Philol. Museum, i, 664. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth the attending to."—Life of Tho. Say, p. 144. "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by the ordering their temple to be re-built," &c.—Rollin, ii, 124. "And for the preserving them from being defiled."—N. E. Discipline, p. 133. "A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles."—Art of Thinking, p. 80. "Hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book."—Rambler, No. 177; Wright's Gram., p. 190. "To the being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 114. "And to the being well heard, and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than power of voice."—Ib., p. 117.

"Potential means the having power or will;
As, If you would improve, you should be still."
—Tobitt's Gram., p. 31.

UNDER NOTE XVII.—VARIOUS ERRORS.

"For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become a passive."—Lowth's Gram., p. 74. "The period is the whole sentence complete in itself."—Ib., p. 115. "The colon or member is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence."—Ib. "The semicolon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision, of a sentence or member."—Ib. "A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments."—Ib., p. 116. "The first error that I would mention, is, a too general attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own."—Webster's Essays, p. 3. "One third of the importations would supply the demands of people."—Ib., p. 119. "And especially in grave stile."—Priestley's Gram., p. 72. "By too eager pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."—Murray's Key, Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 201. "Letters are divided into vowels and consonants."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 7; and others. "Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels."—Ib., i, 8; and others. "The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom."—Ib., i, 176. "If they gain, it is a too dear rate."—Barclay's Works, i, 504. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent a too frequent repetition of it."—Maunder's Gram., p. 1. "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the Latin."—Dr. Ash's Gram., Pref., p. iv. "The groans which a too heavy load extorts from her."—Hitchcock, on Dyspepsy, p. 50. "The numbers [of a verb] are, of course, singular and plural."—Bucke's Gram. p. 58. "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are the indications of a great mind."—Murray's Key, ii, 236. "This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style."—Murray's Gram., i, 198. "This use of the word rather suits familiar and low style."—Priestley's Gram., p. 134. "According to the nature of the composition the one or other may be predominant."—Blair's Rhet., p. 102. "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure a too early expectation of the end."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 411. "An eulogy or a philippie may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon the subject of another."—Adams's Rhet., i, 298. "A French sermon, is for most part, a warm animated exhortation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 288. "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable a lot."—Channing, on Emancipation, p. 52. "The auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense."—Murray's Gram., i, 75. "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons."—Ib., i, 109. "In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired."—Murray's Key, ii, 235. "Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."—Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 156.

n the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to which it relates:

1. When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify it; as, "A mind conscious of right,"—"A wall three feet thick,"—"A body of troops fifty thousand strong."

2. When the quality results from an action, or receives its application through a verb or participle; as, "Virtue renders life happy."—"He was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza."—1 Kings, xvi, 9. "All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, and aloes bitter."—Burke, on Taste, p. 38. "God made thee perfect, not immutable."—Milton.

3. When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; as, "Goodness infinite,"—"Wisdom unsearchable."—Murray.

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun; as, "Truth stands independent of all external things."—Burgh. "Honour is not seemly for a fool."—Solomon.

5. When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a; as, afraid, alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed, askew. To these may be added a few other words; as, else, enough, extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant.

6. When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle; as, "A queen regnant,"—"The prince regent,"—"The heir apparent,"—"A lion, not rampant, but couchant or dormant"—"For the time then present."

OBS. 7.—In some instances, the adjective may either precede or follow its noun; and the writer may take his choice, in respect to its position: as, 1. In poetry—provided the sense be obvious; as,

—————————"Wilt thou to the isles
Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime,
Fly in the train of Autumn?"
—Akenside, P. of I., Book i, p. 27.

——————————————-"Wilt thou fly
With laughing Autumn to the Atlantic isles,
And range with him th' Hesperian field?"
—Id. Bucke's Gram., p. 120.

2. When technical usage favours one order, and common usage an other; as, "A notary public," or, "A public notary;"—"The heir presumptive," or, "The presumptive heir."—See Johnson's Dict., and Webster's.

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being infinitely wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical.

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous woman." Here again, Murray, Comly, and others, approve only the former order; but I judge the latter to be quite as good.

5. When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last; as, "Weighty is the anger of the righteous."—Bible. "Blessed are the pure in heart."—Ib. "Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his course."—1 Esdras, iv, 34. "The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the country."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 151.

6. When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the arrangement is fixed by the sense intended: thus there is a great difference between the assertions, "We call the boy good," and, "We call the good boy"

OBS. 8.—By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, "In particular;" that is, "In a particular manner;" equivalent to particularly. So "in general" is equivalent to generally. It has already been suggested, that, in parsing, the scholar should here supply the ellipsis. See Obs. 3d, under Rule vii.

OBS. 9.—Though English adjectives are, for the most part, incapable of any agreement, yet such of them as denote unity or plurality, ought in general to have nouns of the same number: as, this man, one man, two men, many men.[372] In phrases of this form, the rule is well observed; but in some peculiar ways of numbering things, it is commonly disregarded; for certain nouns are taken in a plural sense without assuming the plural termination. Thus people talk of many stone of cheese,—many sail of vessels,—many stand of arms,—many head of cattle,—many dozen of eggs,—many brace of partridges,—many pair of shoes. So we read in the Bible of "two hundred pennyworth of bread," and "twelve manner of fruits." In all such phraseology, there is, in regard to the form of the latter word, an evident disagreement of the adjective with its immediate noun; but sometimes, (where the preposition of does not occur,) expressions that seem somewhat like these, may be elliptical: as when historians tell of many thousand foot (soldiers), or many hundred horse (troops). To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede a plural one; as, "One hundred men,"—"Every six weeks." And to denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like manner, precede an or a with a singular noun; as, "The Odyssey entertains us with many a wonderful adventure, and many a landscape of nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 436." There starts up many a writer."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 306.

"Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air."—Gray.

OBS. 10.—Though this and that cannot relate to plurals, many writers do not hesitate to place them before singulars taken conjointly, which are equivalent to plurals; as, "This power and will do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to do."—Sale's Koran, i, 229. "That sobriety and self-denial which are essential to the support of virtue."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 218. "This modesty and decency were looked upon by them as a law of nature."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 45. Here the plural forms, these and those, cannot be substituted; but the singular may be repeated, if the repetition be thought necessary. Yet, when these same pronominal adjectives are placed after the nouns to suggest the things again, they must be made plural; as, "Modesty and decency were thus carefully guarded, for these were looked upon as being enjoined by the law of nature."

OBS. 11.—In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper; but, in poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is sometimes elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle; as; "Gradual sinks the breeze Into a perfect calm."—Thomson's Seasons, p. 34. "To Thee I bend the knee; to Thee my thoughts Continual climb."—Ib., p. 48. "As on he walks Graceful, and crows defiance."—Ib., p. 56. "As through the falling glooms Pensive I stray."—Ib., p. 80. "They, sportive, wheel; or, sailing down the stream, Are snatch'd immediate by the quick-eyed trout."—Ib., p. 82. "Incessant still you flow."—Ib., p. 91. "The shatter'd clouds Tumultuous rove, the interminable sky Sublimer swells."—Ib., p. 116. In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, quality is to be expressed, or manner: if the former, an adjective is always proper; if the latter, an adverb. That is, in this case, the adverb, though not always required in poetry, is specially requisite in prose. The following examples will illustrate this point: "She looks cold;"—"She looks coldly on him."—"I sat silent;"—"I sat silently musing."—"Stand firm; maintain your cause firmly." See Etymology, Chap, viii, Obs. 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, on the Modifications of Adverbs.

OBS. 12.—In English, an adjective and its noun are often taken as a sort of compound term, to which other adjectives may be added; as, "An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 169; Brit. Gram., 195; Buchanan's, 79. "Of an other determinate positive new birth, subsequent to baptism, we know nothing."—West's Letters, p. 183. When adjectives are thus accumulated, the subsequent ones should convey such ideas as the former may consistently qualify, otherwise the expression will be objectionable. Thus the ordinal adjectives, first, second, third, next, and last, may qualify the cardinal numbers, but they cannot very properly be qualified by them. When, therefore, we specify any part of a series, the cardinal adjective ought, by good right, to follow the ordinal, and not, as in the following phrase, be placed before it: "In reading the nine last chapters of John."—Fuller. Properly speaking, there is but one last chapter in any book. Say, therefore, "the last nine chapters;" for, out of the twenty-one chapters in John, a man may select several different nines. (See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 7th, on the Degrees of Comparison.) When one of the adjectives merely qualifies the other, they should be joined together by a hyphen; as, "A red-hot iron."—"A dead-ripe melon." And when both or all refer equally and solely to the noun, they ought either to be connected by a conjunction, or to be separated by a comma. The following example is therefore faulty: "It is the business of an epic poet, to form a probable interesting tale."—Blair's Rhet., p. 427. Say, "probable and interesting;" or else insert a comma in lieu of the conjunction.

"Around him wide a sable army stand,
A low-born, cell-bred, selfish, servile band."
—Dunciad, B. ii, l. 355.

OBS. 13.—Dr. Priestley has observed: "There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the negative adjective no; and I do not see," says he, "how it can be remedied in any language. If I say, 'No laws are better than the English,' it is only my known sentiments that can inform a person whether I mean to praise, or dispraise them."—Priestley's Gram., p. 136. It may not be possible to remove the ambiguity from the phraseology here cited, but it is easy enough to avoid the form, and say in stead of it, "The English laws are worse than none," or, "The English laws are as good as any;" and, in neither of these expressions, is there any ambiguity, though the other may doubtless be taken in either of these senses. Such an ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose: as when one man says of an other, "He is no small knave;" or, "He is no small fool."

"There liv'd in primo Georgii (they record)
A worthy member, no small fool, a lord."—Pope, p. 409.

NOTES TO RULE IX.

NOTE I.—Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number: as, "That sort, those sorts;"—"This hand, these hands." [373]

NOTE II.—When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily singular, the noun should be made so too: as, "Twenty pounds" not, "Twenty pound;"—"Four feet long," not, "Four foot long;"—"One session" not, "One sessions."

NOTE III.—The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, to more than two; as, "Verse and prose, on some occasions, run into one another, like light and shade."—Blair's Rhet., p. 377; Jamieson's, 298. Say, "into each other" "For mankind have always been butchering each other"—Webster's Essays, p. 151. Say, "one an other" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th, on the Classes of Adjectives.

NOTE IV.—When the comparative degree is employed with than, the latter term of comparison should never include the former; nor the former the latter: as, "Iron is more useful than all the metals"—"All the metals are less useful than iron." In either case, it should be, "all the other metals,"

NOTE V.—When the superlative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison, which is introduced by of, should never exclude the former; as, "A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vain." Here the word other should be expunged; for this latter term must include the former: that is, the fondness for show must be one of the follies of which it is the vainest.

NOTE VI.—When equality is denied, or inequality affirmed, neither term of the comparison should ever include the other; because every thing must needs be equal to itself, and it is absurd to suggest that a part surpasses the whole: as, "No writings whatever abound so much with the bold and animated figures, as the sacred books."—Blair's Rhet., p. 414. Say, "No other writings whatever;" because the sacred books are "writings" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 6th, on Regular Comparison.

NOTE VII.—Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison; and all double comparatives and double superlatives should be avoided: as, "So universal a complaint:" say rather, "So general."—"Some less nobler plunder:" say, "less noble"—"The most straitest sect:" expunge most. See Etymology, Chap, iv, from Obs. 5th to Obs. 13th, on Irregular Comparison.[374]

NOTE VIII.—When adjectives are connected by and, or, or nor, the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first; as, "He is older and more respectable than his brother." To say, "more respectable and older" would be obviously inelegant, as possibly involving the inaccuracy of "more older."

NOTE IX.—When one adjective is superadded to an other without a conjunction expressed or understood, the most distinguishing quality must be expressed next to the noun, and the latter must be such as the former may consistently qualify; as, "An agreeable young man," not, "A young agreeable man."—"The art of speaking, like all other practical arts, may be facilitated by rules,"—Enfield's Speaker, p. 10. Example of error: "The Anglo-Saxon language possessed, for the two first persons, a Dual number."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, p. 59. Say, "the first two persons;" for the second of three can hardly be one of the first; and "two first" with the second and third added, will clearly make more than three. See Obs. 12th, above.

NOTE X.—In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is a vulgar error; the adverb alone being proper, when manner or degree is to be expressed, and not quality; as, "He writes elegant;" say, "elegantly."—"It is a remarkable good likeness;" say, "remarkably good."

NOTE XI.—The pronoun them should never be used as an adjective, in lieu of those: say, "I bought those books;" not, "them books." This also is a vulgar error, and chiefly confined to the conversation of the unlearned.[375]

NOTE XII.—When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, or these and those, are contrasted; this or these should represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those the former: as,

"And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can,
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."—Pope.

"Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!
My peace with these, my love with those!"—Burns.

NOTE XIII.—The pronominal adjectives either and neither, in strict propriety of syntax, relate to two things only; when more are referred to, any and none, or any one and no one, should be used in stead of them: as, "Any of the three," or, "Any one of the three;" not, "Either of the three."—"None of the four," or, "No one of the four;" not, "Neither of the four." [376]

NOTE XIV.—The adjective whole must not be used in a plural sense, for all; nor less, in the sense of fewer; nor more or most, in any ambiguous construction, where it may be either an adverb of degree, or an adjective of number or quantity: as, "Almost the whole inhabitants were present."—HUME: see Priestley's Gram., p. 190.[377] Say, "Almost all the inhabitants." "No less than three dictionaries have been published to correct it."—Dr. Webster. Say, "No fewer." "This trade enriched some people more than them."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 215. This passage is not clear in its import: it may have either of two meanings. Say, "This trade enriched some other people, besides them." Or, "This trade enriched some others more than it did them."

NOTE XV.—Participial adjectives retain the termination, but not the government of participles; when, therefore, they are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted to govern it: as, "The man who is most sparing of his words, is generally most deserving of attention."

NOTE XVI.—When the figure of any adjective affects the syntax and sense of the sentence, care must be taken to give to the word or words that form, simple or compound, which suits the true meaning and construction. Examples: "He is forehead bald, yet he is clean."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Lev., xiii, 41. Say, "forehead-bald.,"—ALGER'S BIBLE, and SCOTT'S. "From such phrases as, 'New England scenery,' convenience requires the omission of the hyphen."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 89. This is a false notion. Without the hyphen, the phrase properly means, "New scenery in England;" but New-England scenery is scenery in New England. "'Many coloured wings,' means many wings which are coloured; but 'many-coloured wings' means wings of many colours."—Blair's Gram., p. 116.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

"I am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking."—BP.
SHERLOCK: Lowth's Gram., p. 87.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adjective these is plural, and does not agree with its noun kind, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 9th: "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." Therefore, these should be this; thus, "I am not recommending this kind of sufferings."]

"I have not been to London this five years."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 152. "These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 163. "Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with that vermin."—Art of Thinking, p. 66. "But it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours."—Roderick Random, Vol. ii, p. 87. "If I had not left off troubling myself about those kind of things."—Swift. "For these sort of things are usually join'd to the most noted fortune."—Bacon's Essays, p. 101. "The nature of that riches and long-suffering is, to lead to repentance."—Barclay's Works, iii, 380. "I fancy they are these kind of gods, which Horace mentions."—Addison, on Medals, p. 74. "During that eight days they are prohibited from touching the skin."—Hope of Israel, p. 78. "Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 86. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?"—Ib., p. 192. "It distinguisheth still more remarkably the feelings of the former from that of the latter."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. xvii. "And this good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world."—Campbell's Gospels, Matt., xxiv, 14. "This twenty years have I been with thee."—Gen., xxxi, 38. "In these kind of expressions some words seem to be understood."—Walker's Particles, p. 179. "He thought these kind of excesses indicative of greatness."—Hunt's Byron, p. 117. "These sort of fellows are very numerous."—Spect., No. 486. "Whereas these sort of men cannot give account of their faith."—Barclay's Works, i, 444. "But the question is, whether that be the words."—Ib., iii, 321. "So that these sort of Expressions are not properly Optative."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 276. "Many things are not that which they appear to be."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 176. "So that every possible means are used."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. iv.

"We have strict statutes, and most biting laws,
Which for this nineteen years we have let sleep."—Shak.

"They could not speak; and so I left them both,
To bear this tidings to the bloody king."—Id., Richard III.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF FIXED NUMBERS.

"Why, I think she cannot be above six foot two inches high."—Spect., No. 533. "The world is pretty regular for about forty rod east and ten west."—Ib., No. 535. "The standard being more than two foot above it."—BACON: Joh. Dict., w. Standard. "Supposing (among other Things) he saw two Suns, and two Thebes."—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 25. "On the right hand we go into a parlour thirty three foot by thirty nine."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 258. "Three pound of gold went to one shield."—1 Kings, x, 17. "Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that sessions."—The Friend, x, 389. "And, truly, he hath saved me this pains."—Barclay's Works, ii, 266. "Within this three mile may you see it coming."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Mile. "Most of the churches, not all, had one or more ruling elder."—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 375. "While a Minute Philosopher, not six foot high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 151. "The wall is ten foot high."—Harrison's Gram., p. 50. "The stalls must be ten foot broad."—Walker's Particles, p. 201. "A close prisoner in a room twenty foot square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty foot southward, not to walk twenty foot northward."—LOCKE: Joh. Dict., w. Northward. "Nor, after all this pains and industry, did they think themselves qualified."—Columbian Orator, p. 13. "No less than thirteen gypsies were condemned at one Suffolk assizes, and executed."—Webster's Essays, p. 333. "The king was petitioned to appoint one, or more, person, or persons."—MACAULAY: Priestley's Gram., p. 194. "He carries weight! he rides a race! 'Tis for a thousand pound!"—Cowper's Poems, i, 279. "They carry three tire of guns at the head, and at the stern there are two tire of guns."—Joh. Dict., w. Galleass. "The verses consist of two sort of rhymes."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 112. "A present of 40 camel's load of the most precious things of Syria."—Wood's Dict., Vol. i, p. 162. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutiÆ."—S. Barrett's Gram., Tenth Ed., Pref., p. iii.

"So many spots, like nÆves on Venus' soil,
One jewel set off with so many foil."—Dryden.

"For, of the lower end, two handful
It had devour'd, it was so manful."—Hudibras, i, 365.

UNDER NOTE III.—OF RECIPROCALS.

"That shall and will might be substituted for one another."—Priestley's Gram., p. 131. "We use not shall and will promiscuously for one another."—Brightland's Gram., p. 110. "But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from each other also."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 13. "Or on some other relation, which two objects bear to one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 142. "Yet the two words lie so near to one another in meaning, that in the present case, any one of them, perhaps, would have been sufficient."—Ib., p. 203. "Both orators use great liberties with one another."—Ib., p. 244. "That greater separation of the two sexes from one another."—Ib., p. 466. "Most of whom live remote from each other."—Webster's Essays, p. 39. "Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 28. "In a little time, he and I must keep company with one another only."—Spect., No. 474. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon each other."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 32. "They cannot see how the ancient Greeks could understand each other."—Literary Convention, p. 96. "The spirit of the poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with each other in his breast."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 112. "Athamas and Ino loved one another."—Classic Tales, p. 91. "Where two things are compared or contrasted to one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 119. "Where two things are compared, or contrasted, with one another."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 324. "In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from each other."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. iv.

"I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell;
We'll no more meet; no more see one another."—Shak. Lear.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF COMPARATIVES.

"Errours in Education should be less indulged than any."—Locke, on Ed., p. iv. "This was less his case than any man's that ever wrote."—Pref. to Waller. "This trade enriched some people more than it enriched them." [378]—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 215. "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any ancient character known."—Wilson's Essay, p. 5. "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any religion ever did."—Murray's Key, p. 169. "The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any in New Spain."—Robertson's America, ii, 477. "Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was writ."—Pope. "Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any writer."—Blair's Rhet., p. 468. "One son I had—one, more than all my sons, the strength of Troy."—Cowper's Homer. "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age."—Gen., xxxvii, 3.

UNDER NOTE V.—OF SUPERLATIVES.

"Of all other simpletons, he was the greatest."—Nutting's English Idioms. "Of all other beings, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude."—Ibid., Gram., p. 110. "This lady is the prettiest of all her sisters."—Peyton's Elements of Eng. Lang., p. 39. "The relation which, of all others, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet mentioned."—Blair's Rhet., p. 141. "He studied Greek the most of any nobleman."—Walker's Particles, p. 231. "And indeed that was the qualification of all others most wanted at that time."—Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 35. "Yet we deny that the knowledge of him, as outwardly crucified, is the best of all other knowledge of him."—Barclay's Works, i, 144. "Our ideas of numbers are of all others the most accurate and distinct."—Duncan's Logic, p. 35. "This indeed is of all others the case when it can be least necessary to name the agent."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., i, 231. "The period, to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important of any moment of your lives."—Ib., i, 394. "Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of any pronouncing Dictionary yet known."—Red Book, p. x. "This is the tenth persecution, and of all the foregoing, the most bloody."—Sammes's Antiquities, Chap. xiii. "The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of any language in the world."—See Bucke's Gram., p. 141. "Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention of any writer whatever."—Pope's Preface to Homer. "In a version of this particular work, which most of any other seems to require a venerable antique cast."—Ib. "Because I think him the best informed of any naturalist who has ever written."— Jefferson's Notes, p. 82. "Man is capable of being the most social of any animal."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 145. "It is of all others that which most moves us."—Ib., p. 158. "Which of all others, is the most necessary article."—Ib., p. 166.

"Quoth he 'this gambol thou advisest,
Is, of all others, the unwisest.'"—Hudibras, iii, 316.

UNDER NOTE VI.—INCLUSIVE TERMS. "Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 101. "I think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet had."—Dr. Blair's Rec. in Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 300. "We have had no grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgment upon our native language, as the author of these volumes."—British Critic, ib., ii, 299. "No persons feel so much the distresses of others, as they who have experienced distress themselves."—Murray's Key, 8vo., p. 227. "Never was any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation."—Ib., p. 185; Frazee's Gram., p. 135. "No tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek."—Blair's Rhet., p. 85. "Never sovereign was so much beloved by the people."—Murray's Exercises, R. xv, p. 68. "No sovereign was ever so much beloved by the people."—Murray's Key, p. 202. "Nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child."—Ib., p. 203; Merchant's, 195. "Of all the figures of speech, none comes so near to painting as metaphor."—Blair's Rhet., p. 142; Jamieson's, 149. "I know none so happy in his metaphors as Mr. Addison."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150. "Of all the English authors, none is so happy in his metaphors as Addison."—Jamieson's, Rhet., p. 157. "Perhaps no writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle."—Blair, p. 177; Jamieson, 251. "Never was any writer so happy in that concise spirited style as Mr. Pope."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "In the harmonious structure and disposition of periods, no writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero."—Blair, 121; Jamieson, 123. "Nothing delights me so much as the works of nature."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. "No person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day."—Murray's Key, ii, 216. "In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only."—Maunder's Gram., p. 15. "For nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uniformity."—Blair's Rhet., p. 102.

"No writing lifts exalted man so high,
As sacred and soul-moving poesy."—Sheffield.

UNDER NOTE VII.—EXTRA COMPARISONS.

"How much more are ye better than the fowls!"—Luke, xii, 24. "Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest."—2 Esdras, iv, 34. "This word peer is most principally used for the nobility of the realm."—Cowell. "Because the same is not only most universally received," &c.—Barclay's Works, i, 447. "This is, I say, not the best and most principal evidence."—Ib., iii, 41. "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most Highest."—The Psalter, Ps. 1, 14. "The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most Highest."—Ib., Ps. xlvi, 4. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first greatest lesson that should be taught them is to admire frugality."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 152. "More universal terms are put for such as are more restricted."—Brown's Metaphors, p. 11. "This was the most unkindest cut of all."—Dodd's Beauties of Shak., p. 251; Singer's Shak., ii, 264. "To take the basest and most poorest shape."—Dodd's Shak., p. 261. "I'll forbear: and am fallen out with my more headier will."—Ib., p. 262. "The power of the Most Highest guard thee from sin."—Percival, on Apostolic Succession, p. 90. "Which title had been more truer, if the dictionary had been in Latin and Welch."—VERSTEGAN: Harrison's E. Lang., p. 254. "The waters are more sooner and harder frozen, than more further upward, within the inlands."—Id., ib. "At every descent, the worst may become more worse."—H. MANN: Louisville Examiner, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 149.

"Or as a moat defensive to a house
Against the envy of less happier lands."—Shakspeare.

"A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far
Than arms, a sullen interval of war."—Dryden.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It breaks forth in its most energetick, impassioned, and highest strain."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 66. "He has fallen into the most gross and vilest sort of railing."—Barclay's Works, iii, 261. "To receive that more general and higher instruction which the public affords."—District School, p. 281. "If the best things have the perfectest and best operations."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict. "It became the plainest and most elegant, the most splendid and richest, of all languages."—See Bucke's Gram., p. 140. "But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense."—Blair's Rhet., p. 331; Murray's Gram., 248. "That every thing belonging to ourselves is the perfectest and the best."—Clarkson's Prize Essay, p. 189. "And to instruct their pupils in the most thorough and best manner."—Report of a School Committee.

UNDER NOTE IX.—ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED.

"The Father is figured out as an old venerable man."—Dr. Brownlee's Controversy. "There never was exhibited such another masterpiece of ghostly assurance."—Id. "After the three first sentences, the question is entirely lost."—Spect., No, 476. "The four last parts of speech are commonly called particles."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 14. "The two last chapters will not be found deficient in this respect."—Student's Manual, p. 6. "Write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 85. "We have a few remains of other two Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 393. "The nine first chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical."—Ib., p. 417. "For of these five heads, only the two first have any particular relation to the sublime."—Ib., p. 35. "The resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 69. "The three last are arbitrary."—Ib., p. 72. "But in the phrase 'She hangs the curtains,' the verb hangs is a transitive active verb."—Comly's Gram., p. 30. "If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of transitive or intransitive active, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood."—Ib., 15th Ed., p. 30. "These two last lines have an embarrassing construction."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 160. "God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and other seven persons."—Wood's Dict., ii, 129. "The six first books of the Æneid are extremely beautiful."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 27. "A few more instances only can be given here."—Murray's Gram., p. 131. "A few more years will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form."—Nutting's Gram., p. 46. "Some define them to be verbs devoid of the two first persons."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 205. "In such another Essay-tract as this."—White's English Verb, p. 302. "But we fear that not such another man is to be found."—REV. ED. IRVING: on Horne's Psalms, p. xxiii.

"Oh such another sleep, that I might see
But such another man!"—SHAK., Antony and Cleopatra.

UNDER NOTE X.—ADJECTIVES FOR ADVERBS.

"The is an article, relating to the noun balm, agreeable to Rule 11."—Comly's Gram., p. 133. "Wise is an adjective relating to the noun man's, agreeable to Rule 11th."—Ibid., 12th Ed., often. "To whom I observed, that the beer was extreme good."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 127. "He writes remarkably elegant."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 152. "John behaves truly civil to all men."—Ib., p. 153. "All the sorts of words hitherto considered have each of them some meaning, even when taken separate."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 44. "He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example."—Sprat's Sermons, p. 80. "Marvellous graceful."—Clarendon, Life, p. 18. "The Queen having changed her ministry suitable to her wisdom."—Swift, Exam., No. 21. "The assertions of this author are easier detected."—Swift: censured in Lowth's Gram., p. 93. "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger than that."—Bentley: ibid. "If one author had spoken nobler and loftier than an other."—Id., ib. "Xenophon says express."—Id., ib. "I can never think so very mean of him."—Id., ib. "To convince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have ungodly committed."—Jude, 15th: ib. "I think it very masterly written."—Swift to Pope, Let. 74: ib. "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it lively represents."—Addison, on Medals: ib. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."—BURDER: approved in Webster's Impr. Gram., p. 107; Frazee's, 140; Maltby's, 93. "Agreeable to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents."—Webster's Impr. Gram., p. 109. "Words taken independent of their meaning are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender."—Maltby's Gr., 96.

"Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 236.

UNDER NOTE XI.—THEM FOR THOSE.

"Though he was not known by them letters, or the name Christ."—Wm. Bayly's Works, p. 94. "In a gig, or some of them things."—Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent, p. 35. "When cross-examined by them lawyers."—Ib., p. 98. "As the custom in them cases is."—Ib., p. 101. "If you'd have listened to them slanders."—Ib., p. 115. "The old people were telling stories about them fairies, but to the best of my judgment there's nothing in it."—Ib., p. 188. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles than the testimony of them old Pharisees?"—Hibbard's Errors of the Quakers, p. 107.

UNDER NOTE XII.—THIS AND THAT.

"Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: this is the anticipation of good, that of evil."—Brown's Institutes, p. 135. "The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable."—Ib.

"Ellen and Margaret fearfully,
Sought comfort in each other's eye;
Then turned their ghastly look each one,
This to her sire, that to her son."
Scott's Lady of the Lake, Canto ii, Stanza 29.

"Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids,
In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades;
These by Apollo's silver bow were slain,
Those Cynthia's arrows stretched upon the plain."
—Pope, Il., xxiv, 760.

"Memory and forecast just returns engage,
This pointing back to youth, that on to age."
—See Key.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—EITHER AND NEITHER.

"These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed towards either of them are generically distinct."—Blair's Rhet., p. 318. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still either of them may be correct in principle. For these divisions and their technical terms, are all arbitrary."—R. W. Green's Inductive Gram., p. vi. "Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient, as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds; and has no letter to represent either of five simple consonant sounds."—Churchill's Gram., p. 19. "Then neither of these [five] verbs can be neuter."—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 343. "And the asserter is in neither of the four already mentioned."—Ib., p. 356. "As it is not in either of these four."—Ib., p. 356. "See whether or not the word comes within the definition of either of the other three simple cases."—Ib., p. 51. "Neither of the ten was there."—Frazee's Gram., p. 108. "Here are ten oranges, take either of them."—Ib., p. 102. "There are three modes, by either of which recollection will generally be supplied; inclination, practice, and association."—Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. xxix. "Words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, pp. 335 and 340. "Now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to either of these [four] classes."—Ib., p. 577.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST.

"Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates the whole departments of the state?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 278. "A messenger relates to Theseus the whole particulars."—Kames. El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 313. "There are no less than twenty dipthhongs [sic—KTH] in the English language."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. xii. "The Redcross Knight runs through the whole steps of the Christian life."—Spectator No. 540. "There were not less than fifty or sixty persons present."—Teachers' Report. "Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression."—Blair's Rhet., p. 152; Murray's Gram., i, 351. "By which means knowledge, much more than oratory, is become the principal requisite."—Blair's Rhet., p. 254. "No less than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets."—Lemp. Dict., n. Homer. "Temperance, more than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. "I do not suppose, that we Britons want genius, more than our neighbours."—Ib., p. 215. "In which he saith, he has found no less than twelve untruths."—Barclay's Works, i, 460. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and the whole operations fixed."—HUME: see Priestley's Gram., p. 190. "In these rigid opinions the whole sectaries concurred."—Id., ib. "Out of whose modifications have been made most complex modes."—LOCKE: Sanborn's Gram., p. 148. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no less than five different tones."—Blair's Rhet., p. 58. "These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "'Tis certain, we believe ourselves more, after we have made a thorough Inquiry into the Thing."—Brightland's Gram., p. 244. "As well as the whole Course and Reasons of the Operation."—Ib. "Those rules and principles which are of most practical advantage."—Newman's Rhet., p. 4. "And there shall be no more curse."—Rev., xxii, 3. "And there shall be no more death."—Rev., xxi, 4. "But in recompense, we have more pleasing pictures of ancient manners."—Blair's Rhet., p. 436. "Our language has suffered more injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries."—Webster's Essays, Ed. of 1790, p. 96. "The whole conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 166.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.

"To such as think the nature of it deserving their attention."—Butler's Analogy, p. 84. "In all points, more deserving the approbation of their readers."—Keepsake, 1830. "But to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature."—Lempriere's Dict., n. Zeno. "The following extracts are deserving the serious perusal of all."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 135. "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving attention."—Bulwer's Disowned, ii, 95. "The opinions of illustrious men are deserving great consideration."—Porter's Family Journal, p. 3. "And resolutely keeps its laws, Uncaring consequences."—Burns's Works, ii, 43. "This is an item that is deserving more attention."—Goodell's Lectures.

"Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage."—Dryden.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES.

"The tall dark mountains and the deep toned seas."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 278. "O! learn from him To station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."—ANON.: Frost's El. of Gram., p. 104. "He went in a one horse chaise."—Blair's Gram., p. 113. "It ought to be, 'in a one horse chaise.'"—Dr. Crombie's Treatise, p. 334. "These are marked with the above mentioned letters."—Folker's Gram., p. 4. "A many headed faction."—Ware's Gram., p. 18. "Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar for the perhaps heaven inspired effort."—Fowle's True English Gram., Part 2d, p. 25. "Common metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourteen syllable lines."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 69. "Short metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; the third of eight, and the rest of six syllables."—Ibid. "Particular metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight."—Ibid. "Hallelujah metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six."—Ibid. "Long metre stanzas are merely the union of four Iambic lines, of ten syllables each."—Ibid. "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the Old Testament poets."—Blair's Rhet., p. 418.

"You sulphurous and thought executed fires, Vaunt couriers to oak cleaving thunderbolts, Singe my white head! And thou, all shaking thunder Strike flat the thick rotundity o' the world!"—Beauties of Shak., p. 264.

r is not only not present, and not assisting in prosecuting your injuries, but is now actually with Verres."—Duncan's Cicero, p, 19. "In the latter we have not merely nothing, to denote what the point should be; but no indication, that any point at all is wanting."—Churchill's Gram., p. 373. So the word nothing, when taken positively for nonentity, or that which does not exist, may be followed by an other negative; as,

"First, seat him somewhere, and derive his race,
Or else conclude that nothing has no place."—Dryden, p. 95.

OBS. 14.—The common rule of our grammars, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative," is far from being true of all possible examples. A sort of informal exception to it, (which is mostly confined to conversation,) is made by a familiar transfer of the word neither from the beginning of the clause to the end of it; as, "But here is no notice taken of that neither"—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 336. That is, "But neither is any notice here taken of that." Indeed a negation may be repeated, by the same word or others, as often as we please, if no two of the terms in particular contradict each other; as, "He will never consent, not he, no, never, nor I neither." "He will not have time, no, nor capacity neither."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 103. "Many terms and idioms may be common, which, nevertheless, have not the general sanction, no, nor even the sanction of those that use them."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 160; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 358. And as to the equivalence spoken of in the same rule, such an expression as, "He did not say nothing," is in fact only a vulgar solecism, take it as you will; whether for, "He did not say anything," or for, "He did say something." The latter indeed is what the contradiction amounts to; but double negatives must be shunned, whenever they seem like blunders. The following examples have, for this reason, been thought objectionable; though Allen says, "Two negatives destroy each other, or elegantly form an affirmation."—Gram., p. 174.

——————"Nor knew I not
To be both will and deed created free."
—Milton, P. L., B. v., l. 548.

"Nor doth the moon no nourishment exhale
From her moist continent to higher orbs."
—Ib., B. v, l. 421.

OBS. 15.—Under the head of double negatives, there appears in our grammars a dispute of some importance, concerning the adoption of or or nor, when any other negative than neither or nor occurs in the preceding clause or phrase: as, "We will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image."—Dan., iii., 18. "Ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial in Jerusalem."—Neh., ii, 20. "There is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute about them."—Horne Tooke, Div., Vol. i, p. 43. "So as not to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 115; Murray's Gram., p. 322. "He did not mention Leonora, nor her father's death."—Murray's Key, p. 264. "Thou canst not tell whence it cometh, nor whither it goeth."—Ib., p. 215. The form of this text, in John iii, 8th. is—"But canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth;" which Murray inserted in his exercises as bad English. I do not see that the copulative and is here ungrammatical; but if we prefer a disjunctive, ought it not to be or rather than nor? It appears to be the opinion of some, that in ail these examples, and in similar instances innumerable, nor only is proper. Others suppose, that or only is justifiable; and others again, that either or or nor is perfectly correct. Thus grammar, or what should be grammar, differs in the hands of different men! The principle to be settled here, must determine the correctness or incorrectness of a vast number of very common expressions. I imagine that none of these opinions is warrantable, if taken in all that extent to which each of them has been, or may be, carried.

OBS. 16.—It was observed by Priestley, and after him by Lindley Murray, from whom others again have copied the remark: "Sometimes the particles or and nor, may, either of them, be used with nearly equal propriety; [as,] 'The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure.'—Hume. Or would perhaps have been better, but nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression."— Priestley's Gram., p. 138; Murray's, i, 212; Ingersoll's, 268; R. C. Smith's, 177. The conjunction or might doubtless have been used in this sentence, but not with the same meaning that is now conveyed; for, if that connective had been employed, the adjective decisive would have been qualified by the adverb sufficiently, and would have seemed only an alternative for the former epithet, vigorous. As the text now stands, it not only implies a distinction between vigour of character and decision of character, but denies the latter to the king absolutely, the former, with qualification. If the author had meant to suggest such a distinction, and also to qualify his denial of both, he ought to have said—"not sufficiently vigorous, nor sufficiently decisive." With this meaning, however, he might have used neither for not; or with the former, he might have used or for nor, had he transposed the terms—"was not decisive, or sufficiently vigorous."

OBS. 17.—In the tenth edition of John Burn's Practical Grammar, published at Glasgow, in 1810, are the following suggestions: "It is not uncommon to find the conjunctions or and nor used indiscriminately; but if there be any real distinction in the proper application of them, it is to be wished that it were settled. It is attempted thus:—Let the conjunction or be used simply to connect the members of a sentence, or to mark distribution, opposition, or choice, without any preceding negative particle; and nor to mark the subsequent part of a negative sentence, with some negative particle in the preceding part of it. Examples of OR: 'Recreation of one kind or other is absolutely necessary to relieve the body or mind from too constant attention to labour or study.'—'After this life, succeeds a state of rewards or punishments.'—'Shall I come to you with a rod, or in love?' Examples of NOR: 'Let no man be too confident, nor too diffident of his own abilities.'—'Never calumniate any man, nor give the least encouragement to calumniators.'—'There is not a Christian duty to which providence has not annexed a blessing, nor any affliction for which a remedy is not provided.' If the above distinction be just, the following passage seems to be faulty:

'Seasons return, but not to me returns
Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn,
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose,
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine.'
Milton, P. L., B. iii, l. 40.—"Burn's Gr., p. 108.

OBS. 18.—T. O. Churchill, whose Grammar first appeared in London in 1823, treats this matter thus: "As or answers to either, nor, a compound of not or [ne or] by contraction, answers to neither, a similar compound of not either [ne either]. The latter however does not constitute that double use of the negative, in which one, agreeably to the principles of philosophical grammar, destroys the other; for a part of the first word, neither, cannot be understood before the second, nor: and for the same reason a part of it could not be understood before or, which is sometimes improperly used in the second clause; while the whole of it, neither, would be obviously improper before or. On the other hand, when not is used in the first clause, nor is improper in the second; since it would involve the impropriety of understanding not before a compound of not [or ne] with or. 'I shall not attempt to convince, nor to persuade you.—What will you not attempt?—To convince, nor to persuade you.' The impropriety of nor in this answer is clear: but the answer should certainly repeat the words not heard, or not understood."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 330.

OBS. 19.—"It is probable, that the use of nor after not has been introduced, in consequence of such improprieties as the following: 'The injustice of inflicting death for crimes, when not of the most heinous nature, or attended with extenuating circumstances.' Here it is obviously not the intention of the writer, to understand the negative in the last clause: and, if this were good English, it would be not merely allowable to employ nor after not, to show the subsequent clause to be negative as well as the preceding, but it would always be necessary. In fact, however, the sentence quoted is faulty, in not repeating the adverb when in the last clause; 'or when attended:' which would preclude the negative from being understood in it; for, if an adverb, conjunction, or auxiliary verb, preceding a negative, be understood in the succeeding clause, the negative is understood also; if it be repeated, the negative must be repeated likewise, or the clause becomes affirmative."—Ib., p. 330.

OBS. 20.—This author, proceeding with his remarks, suggests forms of correction for several other common modes of expression, which he conceives to be erroneous. For the information of the student, I shall briefly notice a little further the chief points of his criticism, though he teaches some principles which I have not thought it necessary always to observe in writing. "'And seemed not to understand ceremony, or to despise it.' Goldsmith. Here either ought to be inserted before not. 'It is not the business of virtue, to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' Addison. The sentence ought to have been: 'It is the business of virtue, not to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' 'I do not think, that he was averse to the office; nor do I believe, that it was unsuited to him.' How much better to say: 'I do not think, that he was averse to the office, or that it was unsuited to him!' For the same reason nor cannot follow never, the negative in the first clause affecting all the rest."—Ib. p. 332. "Nor is sometimes used improperly after no: [as,] 'I humbly however trust in God, that I have hazarded no conjecture, nor have given any explanation of obscure points, inconsistent with the general sense of Scripture, which must be our guide in all dubious passages.' Gilpin. It ought to be: 'and have given no explanation;' or, 'I have neither hazarded any conjecture, nor given any explanation.' The use of or after neither is as common, as that of nor after no or not.[429] 'Neither the pencil or poetry are adequate.' Coxe. Properly, 'Neither the pencil nor poetry is adequate.' 'The vow of poverty allowed the Jesuits individually, to have no idea of wealth.' Dornford. We cannot allow a nonentity. It should be: 'did not allow, to have any idea.'"—Ib., p. 333.

OBS. 21.—Thus we see that Churchill wholly and positively condemns nor after not, no, or never; while Burn totally disapproves of or, under the same circumstances. Both of these critics are wrong, because each carries his point too far; and yet it may not be right, to suppose both particles to be often equally good. Undoubtedly, a negation may be repeated in English without impropriety, and that in several different ways: as, "There is no living, none, if Bertram be away."—Beauties of Shak., p. 3. "Great men are not always wise, neither do the aged [always] understand judgement."—Job, xxxii, 9. "Will he esteem thy riches? no, not gold, nor all the forces of strength."—Job, xxxiv. 19. Some sentences, too, require or, and others nor, even when a negative occurs in a preceding clause; as, "There was none of you that convinced Job, or that answered his words."—Job, xxxii, 12. "How much less to him that accepteth not the persons of princes nor regardeth the rich more than the poor."—Job, xxxiv, 19. "This day is holy unto the Lord your God; mourn not, nor weep."—Neh., viii, 9. "Men's behaviour should be like their apparel, not too straight or point-de-vise, but free for exercise."—Ld. Bacon. Again, the mere repetition of a simple negative is, on some occasions, more agreeable than the insertion of any connective; as, "There is no darkness, nor shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves."—Job, xxxiv, 22. Better: "There is no darkness, no shadow of death, wherein the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." "No place nor any object appears to him void of beauty."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 255. Better: "No place, no object, appears to him void of beauty." That passage from Milton which Burn supposes to be faulty, and that expression of Addison's which Churchill dislikes, are, in my opinion, not incorrect as they stand; though, doubtless, the latter admits of the variation proposed. In the former, too, or may twice be changed to nor, where the following nouns are nominatives; but to change it throughout, would not be well, because the other nouns are objectives governed by of:

"Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, nor the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Nor sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine."

OBS. 22.—Ever and never are directly opposite to each other in sense, and yet they are very frequently confounded and misapplied, and that by highly respectable writers; as, "Seldom, or never can we expect," &c.—Blair's Lectures, p. 305. "And seldom, or ever, did any one rise, &c."—Ib., p. 272. "Seldom, or never, is[430] there more than one accented syllable in any English word."—Ib., p. 329. "Which that of the present seldom or ever is understood to be."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 120. Here never is right, and ever is wrong. It is time, that is here spoken of; and the affirmative ever, meaning always, or at any time, in stead of being a fit alternative for seldom, makes nonsense of the sentence, and violates the rule respecting the order and fitness of time: unless we change or to if, and say, "seldom, if ever." But in sentences like the following, the adverb appears to express, not time, but degree; and for the latter sense ever is preferable to never, because the degree ought to be possible, rather than impossible: "Ever so little of the spirit of martyrdom is always a more favourable indication to civilization, than ever so much dexterity of party management, or ever so turbulent protestation of immaculate patriotism."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 411. "Now let man reflect but never so little on himself."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 29. "Which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely."—Ps., lviii, 5. The phrase ever so, (which ought, I think, to be written as one word,) is now a very common expression to signify in whatsoever degree; as, "everso little,"—"everso much,"—"everso wise,"—"everso wisely." And it is manifestly this, and not time, that is intended by the false phraseology above;—"a form of speech handed down by the best writers, but lately accused, I think with justice, of solecism. * * * It can only be defended by supplying a very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis."—Johnson's Dict., w. Never.

OBS. 23.—Dr. Lowth seconds this opinion of Johnson, respecting the phrase, "never so wisely," and says, "It should be, 'ever so wisely;' that is, 'how wisely soever.'" To which he adds an other example somewhat different: "'Besides, a slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he had never such opportunities.' Bentley."—Lowth's Gram., p. 109. This should be, "had he had everso excellent opportunities." But Churchill, mistaking the common explanation of the meaning of everso for the manner of parsing or resolving it, questions the propriety of the term, and thinks it easier to defend the old phrase never so; in which he supposes never to be an adverb of time, and not to relate to so, which is an adverb of degree; saying, "'Be it never so true,' is resolvable into, 'Be it so true, as never any thing was.'[431] 'I have had never so much trouble on this occasion,' may be resolved into, 'I have never had so much trouble, as on this occasion:' while, 'I have had ever so much trouble on this occasion, cannot be resolved, without supplying some very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis indeed."—New Gram., p. 337, Why not? I see no occasion at all for supposing any ellipsis. Ever is here an adverb of degree, and relates to so; or, if we take everso as one word, this too is an adverb of degree, and relates to much: because the meaning is—"everso much trouble." But the other phraseology, even as it stands in Churchill's explanations, is a solecism still; nor can any resolution which supposes never to be here an adverb of time, be otherwise. We cannot call that a grammatical resolution, which makes a different sense from that which the writer intended: as, "A slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he never had such opportunities." This would be Churchill's interpretation, but it is very unlike what Bentley says above. So, 'I have never had so much trouble,' and, 'I have had everso much trouble,' are very different assertions.

OBS. 24.—On the word never, Dr. Johnson remarks thus: "It seems in some phrases to have the sense of an adjective, [meaning,] not any; but in reality it is not ever: [as,] 'He answered him to never a word.' MATTHEW, xxvii, 14."—Quarto Dict. This mode of expression was formerly very common, and a contracted form of it is still frequently heard among the vulgar: as, "Because he'd ne'er an other tub."—Hudibras, p. 102. That is, "Because he had no other tub." "Letter nor line know I never a one."—Scott's Lay of L. M., p. 27. This is what the common people pronounce "ne'er a one," and use in stead of neither or no one. In like manner they contract ever a one into "e'er a one;" by which they mean either or any one. These phrases are the same that somebody—(I believe it is Smith, in his Inductive Grammar—) has ignorantly written "ary one" and "nary one" calling them vulgarisms.[432] Under this mode of spelling, the critic had an undoubted right to think the terms unauthorized! In the compounds of whoever or whoe'er, whichever or whiche'er, whatever or whate'er, the word ever or e'er, which formerly stood separate, appears to be an adjective, rather than an adverb; though, by becoming part of the pronoun, it has now technically ceased to be either.

OBS. 25.—The same may be said of soever or soe'er, which is considered as only a part of an other word even when it is written separately; as, "On which side soever I cast my eyes." In Mark, iii, 28th, wherewithsoever is commonly printed as two words; but Alger, in his Pronouncing Bible, more properly makes it one. Dr. Webster, in his grammars, calls soever a WORD; but, in his dictionaries, he does not define it as such. "The word soever may be interposed between the attribute and the name; 'how clear soever this idea of infinity,'—'how remote soever it may seem.'—LOCKE."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 154; Improved Gram., p. 107. "SOEVER, so and ever, found in compounds, as in whosoever, whatsoever, wheresoever. See these words."—Webster's Dict., 8vo.

OBS. 26.—The word only, (i.e., onely, or onelike,) when it relates to a noun or a pronoun, is a definitive adjective, meaning single, alone, exclusive of others; as, "The only man,"—"The only men,"—"Man only,"—"Men only,"—"He only,"—"They only." When it relates to a verb or a participle, it is an adverb of manner, and means simply, singly, merely, barely; as, "We fancy that we hate flattery, when we only hate the manner of it."—Art of Thinking, p. 38. "A disinterested love of one's country can only subsist in small republics."—Ib., p. 56. When it stands at the head of a clause, it is commonly a connective word, equivalent to but, or except that; in which sense, it must be called a conjunction, or at least a conjunctive adverb, which is nearly the same thing; as, "Only they would that we should remember the poor."—Gal., ii, 10. "For these signs are prepositions, only they are of more constant use than the rest."—Ward's Gram., p. 129.

OBS. 27.—Among our grammarians, the word "only" often passes for an adverb, when it is in fact an adjective. Such a mistake in this single word, has led Churchill to say of the adverb in general, "It's place is for the most part before adjectives, after nouns, and after verbs;" &c.—New Gram., p. 147. But, properly, the placing of adverbs has nothing to do with "nouns," because adverbs do not relate to nouns. In this author's example, "His arm only was bare," there is no adverb; and, where he afterwards speaks of the latitude allowable in the placing of adverbs, alleging, "It is indifferent whether we say, 'He bared his arm only;' or, 'He bared only his arm,'" the word only is an adjective, in one instance, if not in both. With this writer, and some others, the syntax of an adverb centres mainly in the suggestion, that, "It's propriety and force depend on it's position."—Ib., p. 147. Illustration: "Thus people commonly say; 'I only spoke three words:' which properly implies, that I, and no other person, spoke three words: when the intention of the speaker requires: 'I spoke only three words; that is, no more than three words.'"—Ib., p. 327. One might just as well say, "I spoke three words only." But the interpretation above is hypercritical, and contrary to that which the author himself gives in his note on the other example, thus: "Any other situation of the adverb would make a difference. 'He only bared his arm;' would imply, that he did nothing more than bare his arm. 'Only he bared his arm;' must refer to a preceding part of the sentence, stating something, to which the act of baring his arm was an exception; as, 'He did it in the same manner, only he bared his arm.' If only were placed immediately before arm; as, 'He bared his only arm;' it would be an adjective, and signify, that he had but one arm."—Ib., p. 328. Now are not, "I only spoke three words," and, "He only bared his arm," analogous expressions? Is not the former as good English as the latter? Only, in both, is most naturally conceived to belong to the verb; but either may be read in such a manner as to make it an adjective belonging to the pronoun.

OBS. 28.—The term not but is equivalent to two negatives that make an affirmative; as, "Not but that it is a wide place."—Walker's Particles, p. 89. "Non quo non latus locus sit."—Cic. Ac., iv, 12. It has already been stated, that cannot but is equal to must; as, "It is an affection which cannot but be productive of some distress."—Blair's Rhet., p. 461. It seems questionable, whether but is not here an adverb, rather than a conjunction. However this may be, by the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, in some other sentences, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only; and it may, when used with that signification, be called an adverb. Thus, the text, "He hath not grieved me but in part." (2 Cor., ii, 5,) might drop the negative not, and still convey the same meaning: "He hath grieved me but in part;" i.e., "only in part." In the following examples, too, but appears to be an adverb, like only: "Things but slightly connected should not be crowded into one sentence."—Murray's Octavo Gram., Index. "The assertion, however, serves but to show their ignorance."—Webster's Essays, p. 96.

"Reason itself but gives it edge and power."—Pope.

"Born but to die, and reasoning but to err."—Id.

OBS. 29.—In some constructions of the word but, there is a remarkable ambiguity; as, "There cannot be but one capital musical pause in a line."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 92. "A line admits but one capital pause."—Ibid. Thus does a great critic, in the same paragraph, palpably contradict himself, and not perceive it. Both expressions are equivocal. He ought rather to have said: "A line admits no more than one capital pause."—"There cannot be more than one capital musical pause in a line." Some would say—"admits only one"—"there can be only one." But here, too, is some ambiguity; because only may relate either to one, or to the preceding verb. The use of only for but or except that, is not noticed by our lexicographers; nor is it, in my opinion, a practice much to be commended, though often adopted by men that pretend to write grammatically: as, "Interrogative pronouns are the same as relative, ONLY their antecedents cannot be determined till the answer is given to the question."—Comly's Gram., p. 16. "A diphthong is always long; as, Aurum, CÆsar, &c. ONLY prÆ, in composition before a vowel is commonly short."—Adam's Gram., p. 254; Gould's, 246.

OBS. 30.—It is said by some grammarians, that, "The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case, it precedes the verb and the nominative; as, 'There is a person at the door.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 197; Ingersoll's, 205; Greenleaf's, 33; Nixon's Parser, p. 53. It is true, that in our language the word there is thus used idiomatically, as an introductory term, when we tell what is taking, or has taken, place; but still it is a regular adverb of place, and relates to the verb agreeably to the common rule for adverbs. In some instances it is even repeated in the same sentence, because, in its introductory sense, it is always unemphatical; as, "Because there was pasture there for their flocks."—1 Chron., iv, 41. "If there be indistinctness or disorder there, we can have no success."—Blair's Rhet., p. 271. "There, there are schools adapted to every age."—Woodbridge, Lit. Conv., p. 78. The import of the word is more definite, when emphasis is laid upon it; but this is no good reason for saying, with Dr. Webster, that it is "without signification," when it is without emphasis; or, with Dr. Priestley, that it "seems to have no meaning whatever, except it be thought to give a small degree of emphasis."—Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 135.

OBS. 31.—The noun place itself is just as loose and variable in its meaning as the adverb there. For example; "There is never any difference;" i.e., "No difference ever takes place." Shall we say that "place," in this sense, is not a noun of place? To take place, is, to occur somewhere, or anywhere; and the unemphatic word there is but as indefinite in respect to place, as these other adverbs of place, or as the noun itself. S. B. Goodenow accounts it a great error, to say that there is an adverb of place, when it is thus indefinite; and he chooses to call it an "indefinite pronoun," as, "'What is there here?'—'There is no peace.'—'What need was there of it?'" See his Gram., p. 3 and p. 11. In treating of the various classes of adverbs, I have admitted and shown, that here, there, and where, have sometimes the nature of pronouns, especially in such compounds as hereof, thereof, whereof; but in this instance, I see not what advantage there is in calling there a "pronoun:" we have just as much reason to call here and where pronouns—and that, perhaps, on all occasions. Barnard says, "In the sentence, 'There is one glory of the sun,' &c., the adverb there qualifies the verb is, and seems to have the force of an affirmation, like truly"—Analytical Gram., p. 234. But an adverb of the latter kind may be used with the word there, and I perceive no particular similarity between them: as, "Verily there is a reward for the righteous."—Psal., lviii, 11. "Truly there is a glory of the sun."

OBS. 32.—There is a vulgar error of substituting the adverb most for almost, as in the phrases, "most all,"—"most anywhere,"—"most every day,"—which we sometimes hear for "almost all,"—"almost anywhere,"—"almost every day." The fault is gross, and chiefly colloquial, but it is sometimes met with in books; as, "But thinking he had replied most too rashly, he said, 'I won't answer your question.'"—Wagstaff's History of Friends, Vol. i, p. 207.

NOTES TO RULE XXI.

NOTE I.—Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Example of error: "We are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word which he uses be not precise and exact."—Blair's Rhet., p. 95; Jamieson's, 66. Murray says,—"though every word which he uses is not precise and exact."—Octavo Gram., p. 302. Better:—"though not every word which he uses, is precise and exact."

NOTE II.—Adverbs should not be needlessly used for adjectives; nor should they be employed when quality is to be expressed, and not manner: as, "That the now copies of the original text are entire."—S. Fisher. Say, "the present copies," or, "the existing copies." "The arrows of calumny fall harmlessly at the feet of virtue."—Murray's Key, p. 167; Merchant's Gram., 186; Ingersoll's, 10; Kirkham's, 24. Say, "fall harmless;" as in this example: "The impending black cloud, which is regarded with so much dread, may pass by harmless."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 262.

NOTE III.—With a verb of motion, most grammarians prefer hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and where, which are in common use, and perhaps allowable, though not so good; as, "Come hither, Charles,"—or, "Come here."

NOTE IV.—"To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) prefixed; as, from hence, from whence."—See W. Allen's Gram., p. 174. Some critics, however, think this construction allowable, notwithstanding the former word is implied in the latter. See Priestley's Gram., p. 134; and L. Murray's, p. 198. It is seldom elegant to use any word needlessly.

NOTE V.—The adverb how should not be used before the conjunction that, nor in stead of it; as, "He said how he would go."—"Ye see how that not many wise men are called." Expunge how. This is a vulgar error. Somewhat similar is the use of how for lest or that not; as, "Be cautious how you offend him, i.e., that you do not offend him."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 175.

NOTE VI.—The adverb when, while, or where, is not fit to follow the verb is in a definition, or to introduce a clause taken substantively; because it expresses identity, not of being, but of time or place: as, "Concord, is when one word agrees with another in some accidents."—Adam's Gram., p. 151; Gould's, 155. Say, "Concord is the agreement of one word with an other in some accident or accidents."

NOTE VII.—The adverb no should not be used with reference to a verb or a participle. Such expressions as, "Tell me whether you will go or no," are therefore improper: no should be not; because the verb go is understood after it. The meaning is, "Tell me whether you will go or will not go;" but nobody would think of saying, "Whether you will go or no go."

NOTE VIII.—A negation, in English, admits but one negative word; because two negatives in the same clause, usually contradict each other, and make the meaning affirmative. The following example is therefore ungrammatical: "For my part, I love him not, nor hate him not."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 16. Expunge the last not, or else change nor to and.

NOTE IX.—The words ever and never should be carefully distinguished according to their sense, and not confounded with each other in their application. Example: "The Lord reigneth, be the earth never so unquiet."—Experience of St. Paul, p. 195. Here, I suppose, the sense to require everso, an adverb of degree: "Be the earth everso unquiet." That is,—"unquiet in whatever degree."

NOTE X.—Adverbs that end in ly, are in general preferable to those forms which, for want of this distinction, may seem like adjectives misapplied. Example: "There would be scarce any such thing in nature as a folio."—Addison. Better:—"scarcely."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXI.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—THE PLACING OF ADVERBS.

"All that is favoured by good use, is not proper to be retained."—Murray's Gram., ii, p. 296.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adverb not is not put in the most suitable place. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 21st, "Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will be improved by placing not before all; thus, "Not all that is favoured by good use, is proper to be retained."]

"Every thing favoured by good use, [is] not on that account worthy to be retained."—Ib., i, 369; Campbell's Rhet., p. 179. "Most men dream, but all do not."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 72. "By hasty composition, we shall acquire certainly a very bad style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 191. "The comparisons are short, touching on one point only of resemblance."—Ib., p. 416. "Having had once some considerable object set before us."—Ib., p. 116. "The positive seems improperly to be called a degree."—Adam's Gram., p. 69; Gould's, 68. "In some phrases the genitive is only used."—Adam, 159; Gould, 161. "This blunder is said actually to have occurred."—Smith's Inductive Gram., p. 5. "But every man is not called James, nor every woman Mary."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 15. "Crotchets are employed for the same purpose nearly as the parenthesis."—Churchill's Gram., p. 167. "There is still a greater impropriety in a double comparative."—Priestley's Gram., p. 78. "We have often occasion to speak of time."—Lowth's Gram., p. 39. "The following sentence cannot be possibly understood."—Ib., p. 104. "The words must be generally separated from the context."—Comly's Gram., p. 155. "Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penultimate."—Murray's Gram., i, 239. "The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed from the English tongue."—Ib., i, 101. "Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more."—Ib., i, 114. "But it is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case."—Ib., i, 174. "Enter, (says he) boldly, for here too there are gods."—Harris's Hermes, p. 8. "For none work for ever so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less."—Sedgwick's Economy, p. 190. "For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again."—Luke, vi, 34. "They must be viewed exactly in the same light."—Murray's Gram., ii, 24. "If he does but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention."—Ib., Key, ii, 207.

UNDER NOTE II.—ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES.

"Motion upwards is commonly more agreeable than motion downwards."—Blair's Rhet., p. 48. "There are but two ways possibly of justification before God."—Dr. Cox, on Quakerism, p. 413. "This construction sounds rather harshly."—Murray's Gram., i, 194; Ingersoll's, 199. "A clear conception in the mind of the learner, of regularly and well-formed letters."—Com. School Journal, i, 66. "He was a great hearer of * * * Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, of whom he makes often mention."—Seneca's Morals, p. 11. "It is only the Often doing of a thing that makes it a Custom."—Divine Right of Tythes, p. 72. "Because W. R. takes oft occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things."—Barclay's Works, i, 570. "Yet often touching will wear gold."—Beauties of Shak., p. 18. "Uneducated persons frequently use an adjective, when they ought to use an adverb: as, 'The country looks beautiful;' instead of beautifully."—Bucke's Gram., p. 84. "The adjective is put absolutely, or without its substantive."—Ash's Gram., p. 57. "A noun or pronoun in the second person, may be put absolutely in the nominative case."—Harrison's Gram., p. 45. "A noun or pronoun, when put absolutely with a participle," &c.—Ib., p. 44; Jaudon's Gram., 108. "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independently of the remaining part of the sentence."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 24. "At my return lately into England, I met a book intituled: 'The Iron Age.'"—Cowley's Preface, p. v. "But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the practice merely of Homer and Virgil."—Kames, El. of Criticism, Introd., p. xxv.

UNDER NOTE III—HERE FOR HITHER, &c.

"It is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 196. "It has been reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."—Ib., Key, p. 227. "To catch a prospect of that lovely land where his steps are tending."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 244. "Plautus makes one of his characters ask another where he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn; that is, with a lanthorn in his hand."—Adams's Rhet. ii, 331. "When we left Cambridge, we intended to return there in a few days."—Anonym. "Duncan comes here to-night."—Shak., Macbeth. "They talked of returning here last week."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 116.

UNDER NOTE IV.—FROM HENCE, &c.

"From hence he concludes that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute."—Webster's Essays, p. 67. "From whence we may likewise date the period of this event."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 202. "From hence it becomes evident, that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain Sounds, having certain Meanings."—Harris's Hermes, p. 315. "They returned to the city from whence they came out."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 135. "Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas; and from thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar."—Author. "What am I and from whence? i.e. what am I, and from whence am I?"—Jaudon's Gram., p. 171.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE ADVERB HOW.

"It is strange how a writer, so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112. "Ye know how that a good while ago God made choice among us," &c.—Acts, xv, 7. "Let us take care how we sin; i.e. that we do not sin."—Priestley's Gram., p. 135. "We see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, which in their signification are not naturally connected."—Murray's Gram., p. 118. "Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?"—2 Cor., xiii, 5. "That thou mayest know how that the earth is the Lord's."—Exod., ix, 29.

UNDER NOTE VI.—WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE.

"Ellipsis is when one or more words are wanting, to complete the sense."—Adam's Gram., p. 235; Gould's, p. 229; B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram.. 184. "Pleonasm is when a word more is added than is absolutely necessary to express the sense."—Same works. "Hyst~eron prot~eron is when that is put in the former part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should be in the latter."—Adam, p. 237; Gould, 230. "Hysteron proteron, n. A rhetorical figure when that is said last which was done first."—Webster's Dict. "A Barbarism is when a foreign or strange word is made use of."—Adam's Gram., p. 242; Gould's, 234. "A Solecism is when the rules of Syntax are transgressed."—Iidem, ib. "An Idiotism is when the manner of expression peculiar to one language is used in another."—Iid., ib. "Tautology is when we either uselessly repeat the same words, or repeat the same sense in different words."—Adam, p. 243; Gould, 238. "Bombast is when high sounding words are used without meaning, or upon a trifling occasion."—Iid., ib. "Amphibology is when, by the ambiguity of the construction, the meaning may be taken in two different senses."—Iid., ib. "Irony is when one means the contrary of what is said."—Adam, p. 247; Gould, 237. "The Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is when several words are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer."—Iid., ib. "Hyperbole is when a thing is magnified above the truth,"—Adam, p. 249; Gould, 240. "Personification is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities."—Iid., ib. "Apostrophe, or Address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some person present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate nature, as if endowed with sense and reason."—Iid., ib. "A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 223. "Simile, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another."—Adam's Gram., p. 250; Gould's, 240. "Antithesis, or Opposition, is when things contrary or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the more striking light."—Iid., ib. "Description, or Imagery, [is] when any thing is painted in a lively manner, as if done before our eyes."—Adam's Gram., p. 250. "Emphasis is when a particular stress is laid on some word in a sentence."—Ib. "Epanorthosis, or Correction, is when the speaker either recalls or corrects what he had last said."—Ib. "Paralepsis, or Omission, is when one pretends to omit or pass by, what he at the same time declares."—Ib. "Incrementum, or Climax in sense, is when one member rises above another to the highest."—Ib., p. 251. "A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 223. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender, or person."—Frost's Gram., p. 43; Greenleaf's, 32. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person, or case."—Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 89; Greenleaf's, 32; Frost's, 43. "Fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by heat."—B. "A Proper Diphthong is where both the Vowels are sounded together; as, oi in Voice, ou in House."— Fisher's Gram., p. 10. "An Improper Diphthong is where the Sound of but one of the two Vowels is heard; as e in People."—Ib., p. 11.

UNDER NOTE VII.—THE ADVERB NO FOR NOT.

"An adverb is joined to a verb to show how, or whether or no, or when, or where one is, does, or suffers."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 62. "We must be immortal, whether we will or no."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 33. "He cares not whether the world was made for CÆsar or no."—American Quarterly Review. "I do not know whether they are out or no."—Byron's Letters. "Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing."—Butler's Analogy, p. 84. "Whether or no he makes use of the means commanded by God."—Ib.,, p. 164. "Whether it pleases the world or no, the care is taken."— L'Estrange's Seneca, p. 5. "How comes this to be never heard of nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or no?"—Bp. Tomline's Evidences, p. 44. "Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not."—John, ix, 25. "Can I make men live, whether they will or no?"—Shak.

"Can hearts, not free, be try'd whether they serve
Willing or no, who will but what they must?"—Milton, P. L.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.

"We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God."—Bentley. "I cannot by no means allow him that."—Idem. "We must try whether or no we cannot increase the Attention by the Help of the Senses."—Brightland's Gram., p. 263. "There is nothing more admirable nor more useful."—Horne Tooke, Vol. i, p. 20. "And what in no time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 345. "No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 114. "Prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste."—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 21. "But that scripture, nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith."—Barclay's Works, i, 172. "But this scripture, nor none other, proves not that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting."—Ibid. "The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness."—Ib., p. 252. "Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give none of the saints this testimony?"—Ib., p. 379. "Which do not continue, nor are not binding."—Ib., Vol. iii. p. 79. "It not being perceived directly no more than the air."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 331. "Let's be no Stoics, nor no stocks, I pray."—Shak., Shrew. "Where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 175. "There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 163.

"Bates. 'He hath not told his thought to the king?' K. Henry. 'No; nor it is not meet he should.'"—Shak.

UNDER NOTE IX.—EVER AND NEVER.

"The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we never so weak; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it never so strong."—Hooker. "He is like to have no share in it, or to be ever the better for it."—Law and Grace, p. 23. "In some parts of Chili, it seldom or ever rains."—Willetts's Geog. "If Pompey shall but never so little seem to like it."—Walker's Particles, p. 346. "Latin: 'Si Pompeius paulum modÒ ostenderit sibi placere.' Cic. i, 5."—Ib. "Though never such a power of dogs and hunters pursue him."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Quamlibet magn canum et venantium urgente vi.' Plin. l. 18, c. 16."—Ib. "Though you be never so excellent."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Quantumvis licet excellas.' Cic. de Amic."—Ib. "If you do amiss never so little."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Si tantillum peccÂssis.' Plaut. Rud. 4, 4"—Ib. "If we cast our eyes never so little down."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Si tantulum oculos dejecerimus.' Cic. 7. Ver."—Ib. "A wise man scorneth nothing, be it never so small or homely."—Book of Thoughts, p. 37. "Because they have seldom or ever an opportunity of learning them at all."—Clarkson's Prize-Essay, p. 170. "We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God."—Atterbury.

"Where, playing with him at bo-peep,
He solved all problems, ne'er so deep."—Hudibras.

UNDER NOTE X.—OF THE FORM OF ADVERBS.

"One can scarce think that Pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry; but within a certain limited region, he has been outdone by no poet."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "I, who now read, have near finished this chapter."—Harris's Hermes, p. 82. "And yet, to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature, is scarce endeavoured in any seminary of learning."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. viii. "By the Numbers being confounded, and the Possessives wrong applied, the Passage is neither English nor Grammar."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 123. "The letter G is wrong named jee."—Creighton's Dict., p. viii. "Last; Remember that in science, as in morals, authority cannot make right, what, in itself, is wrong."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 194. "They regulate our taste even where we are scarce sensible of them."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 96. "Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced slow."—Ib., ii, 257. "Sure, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save."—Barclay's Works, i, 366. "Which is scarce possible at best."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 67. "Our wealth being near finished."—HARRIS: Priestley's Gram., p. 80.