The task of reconstructing the economic life of Saxon England is not easy, and while the document translated below (No. 1) vividly analyses the obligations and rights of the various classes of tenants and officers on Saxon estates of the eleventh century, it raises many difficulties and is probably only true for the more settled parts of the country. It affords, however, clear proof of a high agricultural and social development; and though the exact significance of specific terms, and the status of different classes, may remain obscure, a comparison of the Rectitudines and the Gerefa[2] with later extents and custumals, and with Domesday Book itself, establishes the essential continuity of English economic life and customs, notwithstanding the shock of the Norman Conquest.

The further study of Domesday Book will undoubtedly yield valuable results supplementing the information derived from Saxon documents. While it is primarily a supreme example of the defining spirit and centralising energy of the conquering race, it is also a permanent record of England before and at the time of the Norman invasion. Especially, perhaps, is this apparent in the detailed descriptions of the boroughs, which at once set forth Saxon customs and illustrate the effects of the Conquest. The extracts given below are intended to show in brief, first, the methods both of the commissioners who conducted the survey, and of the officials who reduced the information to a common form;[3] second, the fiscal preoccupation of the government; third, the origin and character of the early borough, especially manifest in the case of Wallingford (No. 5), and fourth, the different classes of tenants, free and unfree. Of particular interest are the following features: the manner of levying the feudal army (No. 6), the evidence of the looser organisation of the Eastern Counties, and the greater degree of freedom prevailing among tenants in the Danelaw (Nos. 4 and 8), the ample franchises that might be enjoyed by a great Saxon prelate (No. 7), the saltpans of Worcestershire (No. 9), and the gildhall of the burgesses of Dover (No. 3).

AUTHORITIES

1. Rights and Duties of all Persons [Rectitudines Singularum Personarum. Cambridge, Corpus Christi, 383], c. 1000.

The Thegn's Law.—The thegn's law is that he be worthy of his book-right,[4] and that he do three things for his land, fyrdfare,[5] burhbote[6] and bridge-work. Also from many lands a greater land-service arises at the king's command, such as the deer-hedge at the king's abode and provision of warships (scorp to fyrdscipe)[7] and sea-ward and head-ward[8] and fyrd-ward, almsfee and churchscot, and many other diverse things.

The Geneat's Service.—Geneat-service is diverse according to the custom of the estate. On some he must pay land-gafol[9] and grass-swine[10] yearly, and ride and carry and lead loads, work, and feast the lord, and reap and mow and cut the deer-hedge and maintain it, build and hedge the burh,[11] bring strange wayfarers to the tun, pay churchscot and almsfee, keep head-ward and horse-ward, go errands far and near whithersoever he be told.

The Cotter's Service.—The cotter's service is according to the custom of the estate. On some he must work for his lord each Monday throughout the year and for three days each week in harvest. On some he works through the whole harvest every day and reaps an acre of oats for a day's work, and he shall have his sheaf which the reeve or lord's servant will give him.[12] He ought not to pay land-gafol. It bents him to have 5 acres; more, if it be the custom of the estate; and if it be less, it is too little, because his work shall be oft required; he shall pay his hearth-penny on Holy Thursday, as all free men should; and he shall defend his lord's inland,[13] if he be required, from sea-ward and the king's deer-hedge and from such things as befit his degree; and he shall pay his churchscot at Martinmas.

The Gebur's Services.—The gebur's services are diverse, in come places heavy, in others moderate; on some estates he must work two days at week-work at such work as is bidden him every week throughout the year, and in harvest three days at week-work, and from Candlemas[14] to Easter three. If he do carrying, he need not work while his horse is out. He must pay on Michaelmas[15] Day 10 gafol-pence, and on Martinmas[16] Day 23 sesters of barley and two henfowls, at Easter a young sheep or two pence; and from Martinmas to Easter he must lie at the lord's fold as often as his turn comes; and from the time of the first ploughing to Martinmas he must plough an acre every week and himself fetch the seed in the lord's barn; also 3 acres at boonwork and 2 for grass-earth[17]; if he need more grass, he shall earn it as he shall be allowed; for his gafol-earth he shall plough 3 acres[18] and sow it from his own barn; and he shall pay his hearth-penny; two and two they shall feed a hunting-hound; and every gebur shall pay 6 loaves to the lord's swineherd when he drives his herd to mast. On the same lands where the above customs hold good, it belongs to the gebur that he be given for his land-stock[19] 2 oxen and 1 cow and 6 sheep and 7 acres sown on his yardland; wherefore after that year he shall do all the customs that befit him; and he shall be given tools for his work and vessels for his house. When death befals him, his lord shall take back the things which he leaves.

This land-law holds good on some lands, but, as I have said before, in some places it is heavier, in others lighter, for all land-customs are not alike. On some lands the gebur must pay honey-gafol, on some meat-gafol, on some ale-gafol. Let him who keeps the shire take heed that he knows what are the ancient uses of the land and what the custom of the people.

Of those who keep the Bees.—It belongs to the bee-churl, if he keep the gafol-hives, that he give as is customary on the estate. Among us it is customary that he give 5 sesters of honey for gafol; on some estates more gafol is wont to be rendered. Also he must be oft ready for many works at the lord's will, besides boon-ploughing and bedrips[20] and meadow-mowing; and if he be well landed[21], he must have a horse that he may lend it to the lord for carrying or drive it himself whithersoever he be told; and many things a man so placed must do; I cannot now tell all. When death befals him, the lord shall have back the things which he leaves, save what is free.

Of the Swineherd.—It belongs to the gafol-paying swineherd that he give of his slaughter according to the custom of the estate. On many estates the custom is that he give every year 15 swine for sticking, 10 old and 5 young, and have himself what he breeds beyond that. To many estates a heavier swine-service belongs. Let the swineherd take heed also that after sticking he prepare and singe well his slaughtered swine; then is he right worthy of the entrails, and, as I said before of the bee-keeper, he must be oft ready for any work, and have a horse for his lord's need. The unfree swineherd and the unfree bee-keeper, after death, shall be worthy of one same law.

Of the Serf-Swineherd.—To the serf swineherd who keeps the inherd[22] belong a sucking-pig from the sty and the entrails when he has prepared bacon, and further the customs which befit the unfree.

Of Men's Board.—To a bondservant (esne) belong for board 12 pounds of good corn and 2 sheep-carcases and a good meat-cow, and wood, according to the custom of the estate.

Of Women's Board.—To unfree women belong 8 pounds of corn for food, one sheep or 3d. for winter fare, one sester of beans for Lent fare, in summer whey or 1d.

To all serfs belong a mid-Winter feast and an Easter feast, a ploughacre[23] and a harvest handful,[24] besides their needful dues.

Of Followers.[25]—It belongs to the follower that in 12 months he earn two acres, the one sown and the other unsown; he shall sow them himself, and his board and provision of shoes and gloves belong to him; if he may earn more, it shall be to his own behoof.

Of the Sower.—It belongs to the sower that he have a basketful of every kind of seed when he have well sown each sowing throughout the year.

Of the Ox-herd.—The ox-herd may pasture 2 oxen or more with the lord's herd in the common pastures by witness of his ealdorman[26]; and thereby may earn shoes and gloves for himself; and his meat-cow may go with the lord's oxen.

Of the Cow-herd.—It belongs to the cow-herd that he have an old cow's milk for seven days after she has newly calved, and the beestings[27] for fourteen nights; and his meat-cow shall go with the lord's cow.

Of Sheep-herds.—The sheep-herd's right is that he have 12 nights' manure at mid-Winter and 1 lamb of the year's increase, and the fleece of 1 bellwether and the milk of his flock for seven nights after the equinox and a bowlful of whey or buttermilk all the summer.

Of the Goat-herd.—To the goat-herd belongs his herd's milk after Martinmas Day and before that his share of whey and one kid of the year's increase, if he have well cared for his herd.

Of the Cheese-maker.—To the cheese-maker belong 100 cheeses, and that she make butter of the wring-whey[28] for the lord's table; and she shall have for herself all the buttermilk save the herd's share.

Of the Barn-keeper.—To the barn-keeper belong the corn-droppings in harvest at the barn-door, if his ealdorman give it him and he faithfully earn it.

Of the Beadle.—It belongs to the beadle that for his office he be freeer from work than another man, for that he must be oft ready; also to him belongs a strip of land for his toil.

Of the Woodward.—To the woodward belongs every windfall-tree.

Of the Hayward.—To the hayward it belongs that his toil be rewarded with land at the ends of the fields that lie by the pasture meadow; for he may expect that if he first neglects this, to his charge will be laid damage to the crops; and if a strip of land be allowed to him, this shall be by folk-right next the pasture meadow, for that if out of sloth he neglect his lord, his own land shall not be well defended, if it be found so; but if he defend well all that he shall hold, then shall he be right worthy of a good reward.

Land-laws are diverse, as I said before, nor do we fix for all places these customs that we have before spoken of, but we shew forth what is accustomed there where it is known to us; if we learn aught better, that will we gladly cherish and keep, according to the customs of the place where we shall then dwell; for gladly should he learn the law among the people, who wishes not himself to lose honour in the country. Folk-customs are many; in some places there belong to the people winter-feast, Easter-feast, boon-feast for harvest, a drinking feast for ploughing, rick-meat,[29] mowing reward, a wainstick at wood-loading, a stack-cup[30] at corn-loading, and many things that I cannot number. But this is a reminder for men, yea, all that I have set forth above.[31]

2. The Form of the Domesday Inquest [Inquisitio Eliensis, Domesday Book, Additamenta, p. 497], 1086.

Here below is written the inquest of the lands, in what manner the King's barons enquire, to wit, by the oath of the sheriff of the shire, and of all the barons and their Frenchmen and of the whole hundred, of the priest, the reeve, six villeins of each town. Then how the manor is named; who held it in the time of King Edward; who holds it now; how many hides; how many ploughs on the demesne, and how many of the men; how many villeins; how many cotters; how many serfs; how many freemen; how many socmen; how much wood; how much meadow; how many pastures; how many mills; how many fishponds; how much has been added or taken away; how much it was worth altogether; and how much now; how much each freeman or socman there had or has. All this for three periods; to wit, in the time of King Edward; and when King William granted it; and as it is now; and if more can be had therefrom than is had.

3. The Borough of Dover [Domesday Book, I, 1], 1086.

Dover in the time of King Edward rendered 18l., of which money King Edward had two parts and Earl Godwin the third. On the contrary the canons of St. Martin had another moiety.[32] The burgesses gave twenty ships to the King once a year for fifteen days and in each ship were twenty-one men. This they did for that he had fully granted to them sac and soc.[33] When the King's messengers came there, they gave for the passage of a horse 3d. in winter and 2d. in summer. The burgesses, however, found a pilot and one other assistant, and if need were for more, it was hired from the messenger's own money.

From the feast of St. Michael[34] to the feast of St. Andrew[35] the King's truce (that is, peace) was in the town. If any man broke it, the King's reeve received therefor common amends.

Whosoever, dwelling in the town continually, rendered custom to the King, was quit of toll throughout all England.

All these customs were there when King William came to England.

Upon his very first coming to England the town was burned, and therefore the value thereof could not be computed, how much it was worth when the Bishop of Bayeux received it. Now it is valued at 40l., and yet the reeve renders therefrom 54l., that is, to the King 24l. of pence which are twenty in the ounce (ora)[36] and to the Earl 30l. by tale.

In Dover there are 29 messuages, from which the King has lost the custom. Of these Robert of Romney has two, Ralph de Curbespine three, William son of Tedald one, William son of Oger one, William son of Tedold and Robert Niger six, William son of Goisfrid three, in which was the gildhall of the burgesses, Hugh de Montfort one house, Durand one, Ranulf de Columbels one, Wadard six, the son of Modbert one. And all these of these houses avow the Bishop of Bayeux as their protector, donor and grantor.

Of the messuage which Ranulf de Columbels holds, which belonged to an exile (that is, an outlaw), they agree that half the land is the King's, and Ranulf himself has both. Humphrey the Bandylegged (Loripes) holds one messuage wherefrom half the forfeiture was the King's. Roger de Ostreham made a house over the King's water and has held hitherto the King's custom. And the house was not there in the time of King Edward.

At the entry of the port of Dover there is a mill which by great disturbance of the sea shatters almost all ships, and does the greatest damage to the King and the men; and it was not there in the time of King Edward. Touching this the nephew of Herbert says that the Bishop of Bayeux granted to his uncle Herbert son of Ivo that it should be made.

4. The Borough of Norwich [Domesday Book, II, 116], 1086.

In Norwich there were in the time of King Edward 1320 burgesses. Of whom one was so much the King's own (dominicus) that he could not withdraw nor do homage without his licence; whose name was Edstan. He had 18 acres of land and 12 of meadow and 2 churches in the borough and a sixth part of a third; and to one church pertained a messuage in the borough and 6 acres of meadow. This borough Roger Bigot holds of the King's gift. And of 1238 burgesses the King and the Earl had soc and sac[37] and custom; and over 50 Stigand had soc and sac and commendation[38]; and over 32 Harold had soc and sac and commendation; of whom one was so much his own (dominicus) that he could not withdraw nor do homage without his licence. In all they all had 80 acres of land and 20 acres and a half of meadow; and of these one was a woman, Stigand's sister, with 32 acres of land; and between them all they had half a mill and the fourth part of a mill, and still have; and in addition they had 12 acres and a half of meadow which Wihenoc took from them; now Rainald son of Ivo has the same; and in addition 2 acres of meadow which belonged to the church of All Saints; these also Wihenoc took, and now Rainald has them. There is also in the borough a church of St. Martin which Stigand held in the time of King Edward, and 12 acres of land; William de Noiers has it now as part of the fee of Stigand. Stigand also held a church of St. Michael, to which belong 112 acres of land and 6 of meadow and 1 plough. This Bishop William holds, but not of the bishopric. And the burgesses held 15 churches to which belonged in almoin 181 acres of land and meadow. And in the time of King Edward 12 burgesses held the church of Holy Trinity; now the bishop holds it of the gift of King William. The King and the Earl had 180 acres of land. The Abbot has a moiety of the church of St. Lawrence and one house of St. Edmund. This was all in the time of King Edward. Now there are in the borough 665 English burgesses and they render the customs; and 480 bordiers who owing to poverty render no custom. And on that land which Stigand held in the time of King Edward there dwell now 39 burgesses of those above; and on the same land there are 9 messuages empty. And on that land of which Harold had the soke there are 15 burgesses and 17 empty messuages which are in the occupation of the castle. And in the borough are 190 empty messuages in that part which was in the soke of the King and Earl, and 81 in the occupation of the castle. In the borough are further 50 houses from which the King has not his custom.... And in the borough the burgesses hold 43 chapels. And the whole of this town rendered in the time of King Edward 20l. to the King and to the Earl 10l. and besides this 21s. 4d. for allowances and 6 quarts of honey and 1 bear and 6 dogs for bear-[baiting]. And now 70l. king's weight and 100s. by tale as gersum to the Queen and 1 goshawk and 20l. blanch to the Earl and 20s. by tale as gersum to Godric.... Of the burgesses who dwelt in Norwich 22 have gone away and dwell in Beccles, a town of the abbot of St. Edmund, and 6 in Humbleyard hundred, and have left the borough, and in King's Thorpe 1, and on the land of Roger Bigot 1, and under W. de Noies 1, and Richard de Sent Cler 1. Those fleeing and the others remaining are altogether ruined, partly owing to the forfeitures of Earl Ralph, partly owing to a fire, partly owing to the King's geld, partly through Waleram.

In this borough if the bishop wishes he can have one moneyer....

Land of the Burgesses.—In the hundred of Humbleyard always 80 acres and 14 bordiers and 1 plough and 3 acres of meadow; and they are worth 13s. 4d.

The French of Norwich.—In the new borough are 36 burgesses and 6 Englishmen and of yearly custom each one rendered 1d. besides forfeitures; of all this the King had two parts and the Earl the third. Now there are 41 French burgesses on the demesne of the King and the Earl, and Roger Bigot has 50, and Ralph de Bella Fago 14, and Hermer 8, and Robert the crossbowman 5, and Fulcher, the abbot's man, 1, and Isac 1, and Ralph Visus Lupi 1, and in the Earl's bakehouse Robert Blund has 3, and Wimer has 1 ruined messuage.

All this land of the burgesses was on the demesne of Earl Ralph and he granted it to the King in common to make the borough between himself and the King, as the sheriff testifies. And all those lands as well of the knights as of the burgesses render to the King his custom. There is also in the new borough a church which Earl Ralph made, and he gave it to his chaplains. Now a priest of the sheriff, by name Wala, holds it of the King's gift, and it is worth 60s. And so long as Robert Blund held the county, he had therefrom each year 1 ounce of gold.

5. The Borough of Wallingford [Domesday Book, I, 56], 1086.

In the borough of Wallingford King Edward had 8 virgates of land, and in these there were 276 haws[39] rendering 11l. of rent (gablo), and those who dwelt there did service for the King with horses or by water as far as Blewbury, Reading, Sutton, Bensington, and to those doing this service the reeve gave hire or corrody not from the king's revenue (censu) but from his own.

Now there are in the borough all customs as there were before. But of the haws there are thirteen less; for the castle eight have been destroyed, and the moneyer has one quit so long as he makes money. Saulf of Oxford has one, the son of Alsi of Farringdon one, which the King gave him, as he says. Humphrey Visdelew has one, for which he claims the King to warranty. Nigel holds one of Henry by inheritance from Soarding, but the burgesses testify that the latter never had it. From these thirteen the King has no custom; and further William de Warenne has one haw from which the King has no custom. Moreover there are 22 messuages of Frenchmen rendering 6s. 5d.

King Edward had 15 acres in which housecarles dwelt. Miles Crispin holds them, they know not how. One of these belongs to[40] (jacet in) Wittenham, a manor of Walter Giffard.

Bishop Walchelin has 27 haws rendering 25s. and they are valued in Brightwell, his manor.

The abbot of Abingdon has 2 acres on which are 7 messuages rendering 4s., and they pertain to Oxford.

Miles has 20 messuages rendering 12s. 10d., and they belong to (jacent in) Newnham, and also one acre on which there are 6 haws rendering 18d. In Hazeley he has 6 messuages rendering 44d. In Stoke one messuage rendering 12d. In Chalgrove one messuage rendering 4d. In Sutton one acre on which there are 6 messuages rendering 12d., and in Bray one acre and 11 messuages rendering 3s. there. All this land pertains to Oxfordshire; nevertheless it is in Wallingford....

Alwold and Godric have the rent (gablum) of their houses and bloodwite if blood is shed there, if the man should be received within them before he be claimed by the King's reeve, except on Saturday owing to the market, because then the King has the forfeiture; and they have the fine for adultery and theft in their houses; but other forfeitures are the King's.

In the time of King Edward the borough was worth 30l. and afterwards 40l.; now 60l. And yet it renders of farm 80l. by tale. What pertains to Adbrei is worth 7s. and the land of Miles Moli 24s. What the abbot of Abingdon has is worth 8s. What Roger de Laci has, 7s. What Rainald has, 4s.

The underwritten thegns of Oxfordshire had land in Wallingford.

Archbishop Lanfranc, 4 houses pertaining to Newington rendering 6s. Bishop Remigius, one house pertaining to Dorchester rendering 12d. The abbot of St. Alban one house rendering 4s. Abbot R. one house in Ewelme rendering 3s.

Earl Hugh, one house in Pyrton rendering 3s.

Walter Giffard, 3 houses in Caversham rendering 2s.

Roger de Olgi, 2 houses in Watlington rendering 2s. and one house in Perie rendering 2s.

Ilbert de Lacy and Roger son of Seifrid and Orgar, 3 houses rendering 4s.

Hugh de Bolebec 3 houses in Crem rendering 3s.

Hugh Grando de Scoca, one house rendering 12d.

Drogo, in Shirburne and in Weston, 3 houses rendering 4s.

Robert Armenteres, in Ewelme, one house rendering 12d.

Wazo, one house in Ewelme rendering 3s.

6. Customs of Berkshire [Domesday Book, I, 56], 1086.

When geld was given in the time of King Edward in common throughout the whole of Berkshire, a hide gave 3½d. before Christmas and as much at Whitsuntide. If the King sent an army anywhere, from 5 hides went one knight only, and for his food or wages 4s. were given to him from each hide for two months. This money, however, was not sent to the King, but was given to the knights. If anyone summoned for military service went not, he forfeited to the King the whole of his land. And if anyone stayed behind and promised to send another in his place, and yet he who was to be sent stayed behind, his lord was quit for 50s. A thegn or knight of the King's own (dominicus) left to the King at death for relief all his arms and one horse with a saddle and one without a saddle. And if he had hounds or hawks, they were presented to the King, that he might receive them if he would. If anyone killed a man having the King's peace, he forfeited to the King both his body and all his substance. He who broke into a city by night made amends in 100s. to the King, not to the sheriff. He who was warned to beat the woods for hunting and went not, made amends to the King in 50s.

7. Land of the Church of Worcester [Domesday Book, I, 172b], 1086.

The church of St. Mary of Worcester has a hundred which is called Oswaldslaw, in which lie 300 hides, wherefrom the bishop of that church, by a constitution of ancient times, has all the profits of the sokes and all the customs belonging thereto for his own board and for the king's service and his own, so that no sheriff can have any plaint there, neither in any plea nor in any cause whatsoever. This the whole county testifies. These aforesaid 300 hides were of the demesne itself of the church, and if anything thereof had been in any wise demised or granted to any man soever, to serve the bishop therewith, he who held the land granted to him could not retain for himself any custom at all therefrom, save through the bishop, nor could he retain the land save until the completed term which they had determined between themselves, nor could he go anywhither with that land.

8. The Manor of Rockland, Co. Norfolk [Domesday Book, II, 164, 164 b], 1086.

In Rockland Simon holds 3 carucates of land which one freeman, Brode, held in the time of King Edward. Then as now 2 villeins and 12 bordiers.[41] Then 4 serfs, now 1, and 8 acres of meadow; then as now 2 ploughs on the demesne and 1 plough among the men. Wood for 6 swine. Then 4 rounceys,[42] now none. Then 8 beasts, now 5. Then 30 swine, now 15. Then 100 sheep, and now likewise. And in the same [town] the same Simon holds 6 freemen and a half, whom the same Brode had in commendation only; 70 acres of land and 4 acres of meadow; then as now 1 plough and a half. Of these 6 freemen and a half the soke was in the King's [manor of] Buckenham in the time of King Edward, and afterwards, until William de Warenne had it. Then and always they were worth 3l. 10s.

After this there were added to this land 9 freemen and a half, 1 carucate of land, 54 acres, this is in demesne; then as now 9 bordiers and 8 acres of meadow; then as now 6 ploughs, and 2 half mills. The whole of this is [reckoned] for one manor of Lewes and is worth 3l. 11s. Of four and a half of the 9 freemen the soke and commendation was in the King's [manor of] Buckenham in the time of King Edward, and afterwards, until William de Warenne had it, and the whole was delivered in the time of Earl Ralph. The whole is 1 league in length and a half in breadth, and [pays] 15d. of geld.

[41] Cotters.