In a weaving mill there is no more important process than sizing, and on its satisfactory management depends the quality and quantity of work turned off, and probably the success of the concern. This is exemplified by the anxiety of a manufacturer to get hold of those recipes well known as obtaining good results. The sale of a shirting, domestic, drill, or heavily sized cloth, absolutely depends on the satisfactory sizing, whilst the cost of making it is regulated by the production of the looms. This has been known in many instances to vary 2s. per loom per week, in the use of a good mixing and a bad one. Cotton warp will not weave well without the previous application of some strengthening substance. In the loom the tension on the threads is great, and whilst distended—and therefore in the most favourable condition for being chafed—the healds with alternate vertical motion, and the reed with reciprocating horizontal motion, rub the threads so severely as to fray them to pieces, unless sized. This point was recognised and counteracted, even in the hand loom days, as mentioned in Chapter I.

In sizing, the objects are to press into the thread a mixture of suitable ingredients, so as to strengthen the yarn, smoothen it, and lay the fibres which project from the surface of the thread, thus increasing the strength, and at the same time reducing the amount of fluff at weaving; also to give to the yarn and cloth the requisite appearance of toughness, strength or body, known technically as the “feel.” It is in the sizing that the “boardy,” “leathery,” “clothy” feels or grip are produced.

Another very important object of this process is the introduction into low classes of cloth of an additional weight of foreign substances. We have not here to deal with the debated and debateable point of its honesty or otherwise, but how the object may best be attained; so long as heavily sized pieces will be bought, so long will they be made, and no blame can, at all events, be attached to the manufacturer. He profits not by the weight, unless unscrupulous, for the price obtained for the piece of cloth is not based on the total weight, but on the amount of cotton contained in it. Frequently the state of the market allows a greater profit out of pure sized goods.

The percentage of size put on cotton goods is calculated according to the increase of weight on the warp only. Thus if the warp in a piece of cloth be composed of 10lbs. of cotton covered with 4lbs. of size, the warp will have been sized to the extent of 40 per cent. The amount of size on cotton warps varies from 3 to 200 per cent. In those classes of goods which are intended for dyeing or bleaching, and which are generally sold by the counts of yarn, it is obviously not wise to add foreign matter to be washed out again, but in those exported goods which have to be made of a fixed weight, or certain feel, heavy sizing is adopted. In the chapter treating of cloths, fuller information on this point is given. Up to 20 per cent. are termed light sized goods, from this to 50 per cent. medium, and above 50 per cent. heavily sized.

Yarn for Warps.

The selection of suitable yarn is obviously important. Warp yarn is generally stronger than weft, and the hardness is obtained by extra twisting of the thread: owing to this peculiarity, warp yarn is generally called “twist.” For heavy sizing purposes, a soft spun twist is advisable, and one made out of the harder and wiry stapled cottons. Brazilian is of this character, and is often mixed with American for “shirting” warps. The spongy and size-absorbent properties are obtained at the expense of the strength of the yarn, and therefore a good sizing twist often winds badly. The colour of the warp yarn is not important, and therefore whiter cottons are often reserved for weft. Fine twists are spun out of longer and finer cottons forming a close spun thread, which is used for better classes of cloth lightly sized. Strength and elasticity are great advantages in twist, and these properties should be obtained and preserved for the last process of weaving.

Sizing Materials.

Many points distinguish a good size-mixing from a bad one, and the leading qualifications for a suitable one are adhesive properties—it is no use sizing warps if the substance falls off at the loom—good colour, and uniform consistency. Mealy cloth is often produced by lumpy size. Yarn, even with a heavy coat of size, should remain tenacious, pliable and smooth.

The number and variety of sizing substances render it impossible to adequately describe the properties and use of each. Mention is only made of those of greatest use and importance; yet the list is sufficiently long. They may be divided into four classes—those for forming the basis or body of the mixing or adhesive substances, those for rendering the dried size pliable, weight-giving substances, and antiseptics. In the adhesive substances, flour is of first importance for medium and heavy sizing. This is manufactured by grinding a portion of the wheat grain, and the qualities used in sizing are of the better sort, fully equal to those used for bread-making. For giving body and adhesiveness to the size, flour is valued, but is found a rather expensive substance, and rather inclined to mildew. To remove this latter disadvantage, and also to render flour more suitable for the purpose for which it is intended, most manufacturers steep it in water for periods varying from three days to as many months. Practical men and sizing specialists generally agree, however, that from two to three weeks is the best length of time for fermentation. On judging the quality of flour, comparisons of colour and stiffness after boiling are made; in the latter case equal quantities of each sample should be taken and treated similarly, both as to amount of water taken and time allowed for boiling. The best test, however, and one that applies to all sizing substances, is whether it “goes far” or not in actual use.

Farina is the ground starch of the potato, and largely used in light sizing on account of its cheapness and convenience for mixing. It requires the use of a softener with it, generally tallow or wax, to counteract a harshness which it gives to the twist when used alone.

Two other vegetable substances—sago and rice flours—are used for very light sizing, especially for fine reeds or coloured work.

Softeners.—Unless some ingredient with a more or less greasy nature be mixed with the above substances in sufficient quantities, the warp is so brittle and harsh as to break frequently in the loom. The substance most frequently used is tallow (refined animal fats). This is somewhat expensive, yet its softening properties in heavy sizing are often introduced into the mixing. The quantity of tallow to each bag of flour or clay varies according to the quantity of other softeners used. In using tallow care must be taken to obtain it hard and free from grit; much wear of clacks and rams may be attributed to gritty matter in this and other ingredients, especially in china clay.

Wax is a softener used for light sizing with farina. It is of two kinds: Japan wax, a vegetable substance, of rather yellow colour, and paraffin wax, clear and semi-transparent, obtained from mineral oils. A high melting point of wax is a great desideratum, to ensure the mixture hardening thoroughly on the warp—110° is considered a fair temperature for wax to bear before melting. For softness, castor oil and glycerine are occasionally adopted, as is also Irish moss.

Soap.—A mixture of animal and mineral substances is not generally used, although a good softener, its frothy nature when boiling rendering it difficult to deal with. Soap and chloride of magnesium (so called anti.) should not be used together, as their action on each other tends to make the size lumpy. One important property of soap, or rather alkali contained in it, is that it kills any acid developed in the mixing. Soda has a similar and stronger tendency. Chloride of magnesium, muriate or chloride of zinc have softening properties, but those substances will be more fully mentioned in the next group.

Weight-giving Material.—Next to flour no substance enters into heavy mixings in such quantity as china clay. This is a white earthy matter found in Devon and Cornwall. After having all stony substances washed out it is dried and packed in bags for shipment to Runcorn and other small ports in the neighbourhood of cotton manufacturing districts. In selecting good qualities, colour and smoothness should be borne in mind. To use this material to advantage a good knowledge of other materials is required, so that such ingredients may be used with clay as to keep the size on the yarn at the loom. When clay is boiling it is somewhat dangerous to lift up the lid of the boiling beck, this substance having an unpleasant property of spurting up, possibly on the face or hands of an attendant.

Metal size is that containing the chlorides of the metals, magnesium and zinc. Chloride of magnesium, a mineral salt obtained in Germany, is valued as a weighting and softening compound. It has the peculiar property of attracting moisture to itself, always causing cloth or any substance containing it to feel damp. This substance is melted out of its solid form into a liquid by the application of steam, and is afterwards stored in a lead-lined tank. Muriate of zinc, or chloride of zinc, is a substance of importance for weighting, and is also valuable in checking the growth of mildew.

Mildew, as may be seen under a microscope, is a species of fungus—a vegetable growing under certain conditions favourable to its development. If warp or cloth is sized or finished damp, then stored in a dry room for a considerable time, mildew may be expected, unless antiseptics have been used. An antiseptic is a substance tending to destroy vegetable life, and of antiseptics muriate of zinc and carbolic acid are the most suitable for sizing purposes. As chloride of magnesium does not prevent mildew, indeed, its use being rather favourable to the development of that evil, the name anti, or antiseptic, usually given to it is misleading. It is very important that a manufacturer should take every precaution to prevent mildew by the use of real antiseptics, especially when using such sizing materials as flour, tallow, or any other which readily mildews. It may be mentioned that the maker of the cloth is liable for any damage done in this respect, if the cause can be found in defective sizing, even though the growth may not be seen until the goods have arrived abroad.

The before-mentioned chlorides are greatly dependent on the weather, and also on the situation of a shed, for their good weaving properties. In case of east winds, extremely dry or cold atmospheric conditions, or in a dry shed twist sized with magnesium, zinc or china clay, is rendered brittle first. Numerous other materials are used by a few manufacturers, but they do not require an extended notice. Dividing them into the four classes previously mentioned, we may refer to:—1st, maize, starch, tapioca, dextrin, and gum; 2nd, oils, compositions, spermaceti, curd soap, Irish moss, cocoanut oil; 3rd, French chalk, Epsom salts; whilst soda is used to prevent iron-mould, and blue to take away a yellow tinge from the size mixing.

Size Mixing.

Mixing is performed in becks—wooden tanks fitted with dashers, constantly revolving and stirring the mixture. To each beck pumps are attached so as to force the size to another beck to complete the mixing process; or, if the mixing is ready for use, to pump it to the size box of the slasher frame.

A set of becks generally consists of four—two about 4 by 8 feet, and two each 4 feet square, while for heavy sizing a copper or copper-lined boiling pan is used. This latter is fixed at a higher level than the becks for convenience in transferring the boiled size to the becks.

Considering that a mixing made from a fixed quantity of certain ingredients is not generally used for percentages ranging more than 15 per cent., and that different mixings are required all the way up to 150 or 200 per cent., whilst at the same time not more than two or three manufacturers may use exactly similar mixings even for the same degree of weighting, it will readily be seen that the mixings employed in the cotton trade are innumerable. This difference has been caused by the jealous care taken by a sizer to preserve to himself the recipe of his own mixing, and rightly so. Thus, new mixings have had to be adopted by new firms, the correct quantity of each ingredient having to be fixed by repeated experiments; and as the true properties of each substance have not been, and are not yet, well understood among manufacturers according to scientific investigation, the differences of opinion, and consequent differences of recipes, are very great. Nor is it to the ingredients that these opinions are confined, but to the order of putting each into the beck, the times of fermenting and boiling, and many other details.

It is somewhat difficult to satisfactorily determine beforehand the amount of weight which can be obtained from a mixing. An instrument, really a hydrometer, but often, from the name of its inventor, dubbed a “Twaddle,” is sometimes used; but unless a fixed temperature is always taken, these instruments are not reliable, as a mixing twaddles differently at different heats. Indeed, from the varying results obtained, a twaddle cannot be said to be of much practical use in sizing. A better system, perhaps, is to take the proportion of solid or semi-solid matters in a mixing as against the weight of water, and compare it with the ratio of another mixing which is known to give a certain percentage. Thus, if one mixing of 3lb. of solid matter to a gallon (10lb.) of water gives 25 per cent., then a mixing with 6lb. solids to the gallon may roughly be said to put in 50 per cent. Heavy liquids, such as zinc and solution of magnesium chloride, will have to be reckoned partially as liquids, in consequence of the evaporation which will take place on drying at the cylinders; and the softeners, from their inability to retain liquids as well as the starches, will not be calculated as having the same weighting power. Magnesium may be reckoned as having one-third of its weight in solids, and zinc at one-half.

For Light Sizing.—Taking a pure size, say 8 to 10 per cent., farina and wax or tallow is generally used as being the cheapest, and at the same time most suitable mixing. The ingredients are generally combined in the same beck that they are boiled in; for 10 per cent. the following may be used: 200lb. farina, 20lb. wax, 200 gallons water. By the addition of clay, the same may be made serviceable up to 25 per cent.

For Medium Sizing, say 50 per cent.—Flour, clay softener and chlorides are used—say flour 480lb., clay 224lb., tallow 60lb., chloride of magnesium (so-called anti) 5 gallons, zinc 2 gallons, soda 8lb., water 150 gallons in all. It is mixed as described for 100 per cent.

For 100 per cent.—1lb. of size for 1lb. of warp. Similar ingredients are used, but different proportions. Flour 560lb., clay 560lb., tallow 130lb. (or other softener), chloride of magnesium 20 gallons, chloride of zinc 10 gallons, soda 10lb., and blue.

The flour is steeped alone for three weeks, at the end of which time the zinc is added to it with soda and boiled, then the other ingredients, which had been previously heated in the boiling pan, are lowered into the flour and the whole boiled together.

For 150 per cent. put still more clay and magnesium to the same quantity of other substances, adding some specially prepared softening grease, or adhesive size mixture.

The mixing of size requires constant care and supervision; for variations in the quality of materials, in the weather, or in time of storage or steepage necessitate changes in the proportions of ingredients to obtain correct and unvarying weights.

Sizing Machinery.

The slasher is the machine generally used for applying the size to the yarn; the usual name for the process is taping, a word derived from the old tape frame in use 30 years ago, and handed down to its successor, the slasher. One sizing frame is required for 300 looms, the width of the frame being adapted to the size of beam required for the loom; this is a few inches wider than the cloth. A common size is a 9/8; this makes warps 54 inches wide between the flanges, the drying cylinder face being 60 inches wide; a 6/4 is 60 inches beam and 66 inches on face; an 8/4 = 78 inches and 84 inches respectively.

A sizing frame is of great length, and in three portions—at the back the creel, in the centre the drying, and in front the headstock. (See Plate IV.)

Supposing a warp is required of 2480 ends—three beams, each 504, will be taken together with two of 484 each; these are placed in the creel in two levels, and the narrower ones are placed at the back. If they were in front of the broader ones the sheet of warp would overhang the narrow beams. The ends are gathered in one sheet, the layers from the hinder beams passing over the top beams and under the bottom ones, all leaving the creel after passing under the foremost beam and travelling into the sow box. Two contiguous boxes or troughs are used for holding the size—the one farther from the creel, called the size box, receiving the mixture directly from the beck, a regulating valve being fixed on the inlet pipe to prevent the box becoming too full. The sow box is the larger one, and receives the size from an aperture in the bottom of the size box, as well as from a separate pipe. In the bottom of the sow box is fixed a boiling pipe of elliptical form, perforated with small holes, through which steam is forced into the size, causing it to boil, and thus always be in the fittest state for application to the yarn. At about half the height of the box two pairs of rollers are fixed, the back pair having the bottom one of wood, and the top one of iron, covered with flannel and cloth; the front bottom roller, or finisher, is of copper, having resting on it a heavy iron one, likewise covered with several layers of flannel and two of cotton cloth. On the firm and even surface of these rollers depends, to a great extent, the quality of the sizing. Between the wooden roller and the end of the box nearest the creel is a copper immersion roller, its use being to lower or raise the warp in the size by means of a rack and pinion. The warp ends coming up from the beams pass under the immersion roller, thus being soaked under the surface of the boiling size, thence between the first and second pairs of rollers—the object of these being to press out all superfluous size and imbed into the thread that which is required. Immersing the thread deeply is advantageous for heavy sizing, although, by simply dipping it, the fluid only attaches itself to the outside of the thread. Better results could be obtained by pressing the yarn whilst under the surface. An example of the hollow india-rubber ball illustrates this. If a punctured or slit ball be immersed in water, without pressure, little or no fluid enters it; but if, whilst under, it is squeezed, the air is expelled, and, on expanding, the surrounding water enters, filling the cavity. Similar results can be obtained by expelling the air from the interstices of the yarn whilst under the size, and patents have been taken out for suitable apparatus. This point is worthy the attention of machinists. Unless well boiled, size retains a granular nature, causing faulty cloth; to obviate this, many machinists insert between the size beck and the sizing frame an extra boiling apparatus, so arranged by the intervention of pipes to boil the size under pressure, impinging steam against the particles of size as they enter the box, thus breaking the globules. After boiling thus, the size enters the box in the ordinary way. To lay the fibres on the yarn a few sizers have recourse to revolving brushes acting on the thread directly after passing the finisher roller. These revolve about 700 revolutions per minute, considerably faster than the warp speed. They are considered advisable for fine reeds and fancy goods.

Adverting to the process of sizing the warp, we come now to the drying; this is done by means of two tin or copper cylinders about 7 feet and 4 feet diameter respectively, the larger one being nearer the front of the frame (see Plate). Steam at a low pressure is admitted to these, and both are enclosed in a wooden case. The sheet of warp passes over the smaller cylinder without touching it, and round the larger one; leaving this at the bottom, the twist is next led over the small cylinder and passes to the front of the frame under both. Thirteen or fourteen yards of warp are always drying. Although the moisture has been expelled, the twist is now in a very hot state, and on its passage into the headstock a couple of fans are used for cooling purposes. Systems of drying by currents of air have been introduced, but seem to take no hold in the cotton industry. It is important that the surface of the drying cylinders be kept smooth.

The headstock of the slasher consists of framework, holding the rods and reed necessary for separating the sized threads, and the apparatus for winding the yarn on the weavers’ beam. This latter operation comprises the driving of the whole machine, as all the actuating power is transmitted from the headstock by the pull exerted at the front of the machine. By iron rods the sheet of warp is repeated horizontally into as many layers as there are back beams; then, by means of an expanding comb, the rods are separated vertically; thus each being sundered from its fellows, no possibility of “sticking” remains. The split rods are shown in Plate IV.

The most effective mode of winding the yarn on the beam is shown in section at Fig. 12.

Power is received by the main shaft carrying the cone drum, and transmitted by a strap cone drum; this in turn drives by a pinion the wheel fixed on the friction roller (the largest of the three rollers at the upper part of Fig. 12), which is thus positive driven. It also drives the beam shaft, but not positively; the only connection between the cog wheel A, Fig. 13, and the shaft on which A rides loose, is by means of the friction plates L, between A and B, and A and C.

Unless these are compressed so as to clip a felt washer, the beam is not driven at all, so that it is very easy for the sizer to regulate the tension at which his yarn shall be wound by moving the weight H on the lever G, which presses the positive driven plates B and C against the friction driven plates L L, bringing them into closer contact and thus speeding the beam, consequently tightening the yarn.

The friction roller is a shade larger in diameter than the finishing roller in the sow box, and is connected with it by a long side shaft, each roller revolving at the same speed; the yarn is consequently kept sufficiently tight during the whole process.

In the old style of frame, without the above-mentioned friction, cone drums were used for regulating the speed of the warp. As the beam increased in diameter, one revolution meant a greater length of twist wound on, and the strap had to be moved along the cone drums to diminish the number of revolutions of the beam per minute, and thus keep the speed of the sheet of warp constant.

Numerous presses are used to get a hard beam with a greater number of cuts on it. Although, when extremely hard, the weaving is more difficult, the advantage of fewer gaitings of beams in the shop, doffings at the size frame, and less waste is adequate compensation. These presses generally consist of one or two rollers resting on a stand under the beam in the frame. By weighted levers the stand and rollers are forced upwards against the beam, and keep it hard whilst winding. Figs. 14 and 15 represent plan and section of this presser.

The duties of the slasher, or, as he is more frequently called, the taper, are to keep the size of proper boil and density, so as to obtain a constant weight of cut, to keep the twist pieced, and doff the beams when filled. In some operations it is necessary to stop the frame for a few minutes, and although the stopping handle is connected with the cylinder steam pipe to prevent further admission of steam to the cylinders, these remain so hot as to brown the twist.

Slow Motion.

A slow motion is usually fixed on new frames, and as will be seen from Fig. 16, it is a simple and effective method for preventing brown or hard places in the warp by running the machine very slowly instead of stopping it completely. A thin pulley rides on a collar on the main shaft of the frame, and by the gearing shown (Fig. 16) drives the driven cone far slower than its usual speed. Obviously the fast and slow motions could not be both connected with the driven cone by fixed gearing, and consequently, to enable the slow motion to be put in gear only after the fast speed is out of action, the shaft only drives a plate carrying a ratchet pawl. The ratchet wheel is on the driven cone shaft, and as the pawl only overtakes the wheel when the latter is almost stopped, the desired end is obtained.

Marking Motion.

To enable the weaver to finish the piece when a required length has been woven the warp is marked at the sizing frame at a certain length. This is generally done for plain goods by means of a measuring roller 14·4 inches in circumference, round which the twist passes. On the end of this is a tin roller wheel driving a change wheel or stud wheel. By means of a worm on the same stud the motion is transferred to a bell wheel of 45 teeth, which drives a marking cam so arranged as to gradually lift and suddenly drop a hammer, which smits the warp against a block soaked in some colouring matter.

To get the wheels for a certain length, say the stud wheel, multiply the length of mark desired in inches by tin roller wheel, and divide by the bell wheel and the circumference of tin roller.

To get the tin roller wheel, multiply the circumference of measuring roller by bell wheel and by stud wheel, dividing by length of mark required. To prove this the length of mark may be obtained from the wheels, say stud wheel 105 and tin roller wheel 45.

(14·4 × 45 × 105) / 45 = 1512 inches, or 42 yards.

In marking dhooties, in addition to the smit for the end of the piece, additional smits have to be made where the heading for each scarf has to be inserted. Usually this is done by having an additional train of wheels and an extra marker, called a dhootie-marker, to strike 3, 4, or 6, etc., times for the cut-marker’s once. In Fig. 17 a special arrangement is shown. The usual wheels are shown at h, the worm i, the bell wheel k, the bell shaft cut-mark hammer m. The other wheels and the marker n refer to the dhootie mark; b is fixed to the stud and drives c with d, a pinion on another stud; the wheels e, f and g complete the train, and on the same shaft as g a cam o operates the dhootie-marker. This is arranged to strike any number of times for once of the cut-marker, regulated by the number of teeth in the change wheel f, 10 teeth in which give one mark to a cut mark, 30 give three marks to a cut, 100 ten marks to a cut, and so on by somewhat similar systems for higher numbers.

Tape Dressing.

The tape dressing machine—the predecessor of the slasher—is still used in Scotland, being suited to the light fabrics principally made there. The back beams are placed in a creel at one level and the ends pass through a reed at the back of the frame. The sheet is then immersed in size, and passes between a pair of slowly revolving circular brushes, afterwards being dried by a fan, and also on a small cylinder. There is no friction, and the yarn is wound on the beam after being split by the rods and reed.

Ball Sizing.

Only one system of sizing in addition to those referred to requires description, and that is ball sizing, the process following ball warping, described in the previous chapter. The warps are uncoiled from the ball, and run into a large vat of size, at the bottom of which the warp remains some time, passing over and under some eight or ten rollers until thoroughly soaked. The superfluous size is expelled by passing the warp between rollers, when it is removed to another machine for drying purposes. This has 12 cylinders 2 feet in diameter, and of considerable width, heated by steam. Between these cylinders the warp is flattened and dried, after which it is again balled and placed in a cloth for a short time to become “mellowed;” even yet it has one process to undergo—beaming. Here the warp is taken, the ends sundered out and run over a frame to the weaver’s beam. The reader will readily see that the extra processes of balling after warping, and beaming after sizing, as well as two machines required for sizing, are sufficient to explain the fact that ball systems are dying out, and not only for this reason, but also because of the uncertainty as to what extent goods can be weighted, the percentages being very irregular. The warps are often streaky also, but the thread preserves a rounder and stronger formation than at the slasher frame.

Looming and Drawing.

The weaver’s beam, as made at the sizing frame, contains from 500 to 1000 yards of warp, according to the counts of yarn and number of ends. It is not yet ready for the loom, as the healds and reed have to be attached. If new healds and reed are used each end must be drawn through an eye of one of the healds and through a dent in the reed. In this case the operation is performed by a drawer-in, who, with hooks at one side of the gears, draws the ends through, which are presented to him by a reacher at the opposite side. In case of healds having been used before with similar draft, counts per inch, etc., a loomer or twister-in is required, who, with an adroit twirl, pieces each end on the new beam to a corresponding one which has been left in the heald from an old beam. These men are remunerated for plain work at so much per 1000 ends, the drawer having more for the same number of ends. The order in which the ends are drawn through the healds is most important, although for plain and simple fancy work one system is generally adopted; for fancier cloths the difference of draft is great, and regulates to a great extent the kind of figure produced on the cloth. These healds and reed are required in the loom, being of great importance with regard to the proper interlacing and guidance of the ends. The healds, sometimes called heddles or gears, are of cotton or worsted, and are used in making the shed for the passage of the shuttle. The usual form is a loop, tied through which is a second loop, knotted so as to leave a quarter-inch eye. Fig. 18 explains the structure. The healds are knit in a special machine, and when finished show the loops ten inches deep, connected with a braid running along the top and bottom. The eyes are closely or sparsely arranged, according to the counts of reed for which the healds are intended. Staves are inserted in the top and bottom loops, and a set of healds consists of three or more staves. Plain could be woven by two staves, but four are almost always employed. The ends of warp are drawn through the healds, one through each eye. The method of separating the warp to form a shed is apparent. For example, suppose a warp of 2000 ends be drawn on four healds, each having 500 eyes, and two of these healds be raised whilst the other couple is depressed, a shed of two equal parts will be formed.

Metallic healds are being introduced, we believe, satisfactorily. The loops and eyes are of wire, sliding on bars attached to the staves (Fig. 19). A set of healds may be used for different counts of reeds.

The reed, comb or ravel (Fig. 20) is an arrangement of dents—pieces of flattened or polished wire four or five inches long fixed between strips of wood by pitched band. The dents are closer or not as the reed is finer or coarser in counts. Generally, two ends are drawn through each split or dent.