Franz Brentano, son of Christian Brentano, and nephew of Clemens Brentano and Bettina von Arnim, was born on January 16, 1838, at Marienberg, near Boppard on the Rhine. He early embraced the study of philosophy and theology, both at Berlin, under Trendelenburg, and also at Munich. In 1864 he was ordained priest, and two years later became privat docent in the University of WÜrzburg. In 1873 he was appointed professor there, but in the same year resigned his office in consequence of his changed attitude towards the Church, and as an opponent of the Vatican Council. Somewhat later, in response to this change in his convictions, he separated himself definitely from the Church.

In 1874 Brentano received a call to the University of Vienna, and continued there teaching Philosophy until 1895, first as ordinary professor, and afterwards, having meantime renounced his professorship, as privat docent. The reasons which led him to retire from this post also, are set forth in his work, My Last Wishes for Austria (Stuttgart, 1895). After withdrawing from his post as teacher he took up his residence at Florence.

Brentano regards Aristotle as his real teacher in philosophy, and his two earliest publications, Von der mannigfachen Bedeutung des Seienden nach Aristoteles (Freiburg, i. Br. 1862), and Die Psychologie des Aristoteles insbesondere seine Lehre vom ???? p???t???? (Mainz, 1867), are a testimony to his comprehensive study and thorough knowledge of Aristotelian philosophy. Especially is he in agreement with the Stagirite regarding the high position he would assign to the application of the empirical method as the only one which, in regard alike to scientific and philosophical problems, is able by cautious and gradual advance, to attain to knowledge. These first principles of method, especially in their relation to psychological research, he has set forth and practised in his first systematic work, Psychologie vom Empirischen Standpunkte (vol. i., Leipzig, 1874). It was also his regard for this method of inquiry which early imbued him with a special interest for the works of the most eminent English philosophers of modern times, not only John Locke and David Hume, but also Bentham, the two Mills, Jevons and others. A study of these writers led Brentano to enter at length in his WÜrzburg lectures into a critical and explanatory treatment of English psychology and logic, characterizing it as a source of instruction and inspiration at a time when other distinguished advocates of German philosophy looked askance at this attitude towards English thought, believing that by its contact with English writers the peculiar character of German thought might suffer. It will be observed that only the first volume of the Psychology from the Empirical Standpoint has hitherto appeared, and it seems hardly likely that the work in its present form will be continued, for further reflection convinced Brentano that descriptive[A] psychology, or Psychognosy, as of most importance in the examination and presentation of psychological problems, must be separated from genetic psychology,[B] a study necessarily half physiological in character; and that the former problem as the naturally earlier and least difficult study should first be as far as possible completed.

Such psychognostical inquiries, although not yet in principle separated from genetic inquiry, occupy by far the greater part of the first volume of the Psychology from the Empirical Standpoint. Among the subjects there treated are: 1, the fundamental revision of the classification of psychical phenomena, and their division into the three main classes: ideas, judgments, and phenomena of love and hate; 2, and in particular, a new and more appropriate characterization of the judgment.

The insufficiency of the old doctrine according to which judgment consists essentially in a connexion of ideas, had already been shown by Hume, and more recently was strongly emphasized by Mill, though neither was able to arrive at perfect clearness respecting its real nature. Notwithstanding this, the affinity of Brentano’s doctrine of the judgment with that of Mill, led to a scientific correspondence, and later to arrangements for a personal interview, when, at the last moment, the plan was frustrated by the death of the great English investigator.

The new description of the judgment and its essential qualities form the basis for a reform of logic even in its most elementary stages, a reform which, in its essential features, is suggested in the above-mentioned work, and also touched upon in the Essay here translated; but this truer description of the phenomenon of judgment also throws light upon the description and classification of the modes of speech from the point of view of their function or meaning,—a classification based upon true and most essential distinctions. In comparison with phonetics this branch is still little developed. What is here said, was seen by eminent philologists like Fr. von Miklosich, the pioneer in the sphere of Slav comparative philology. In the appendix will be found an article bearing upon this view.

While engaged in a profound study of the descriptive peculiarities connected with the third fundamental class of psychical states above referred to—a study analogous to that previously undertaken by him with regard to the judgment—Brentano was led to the discovery of the principles of ethical knowledge which form the subject of this lecture. The author, in his lectures delivered before students of all faculties, but especially to students in the faculty of law, during each winter session throughout many years, presented a complete and fully developed system of ethical teaching based upon these principles.[A] Unfortunately, this lecture still remains unpublished. The same holds good of many of his inquiries into “descriptive psychology,” or psychognosie, e.g. inquiries into the nature of sense perceptions according to their qualitative and spatial nature, the nature of the continuum, the time phenomenon, etc., the results of which are hitherto familiar only to those who have either attended his lectures, or have been present during private conversations.

As to the other branches of philosophy, the work of Brentano already published forms but a portion—often but the smaller portion—of investigations, which, in the manner above described, have become known to a larger or smaller circle of disciples. This explains the striking fact that, in proportion to the extent of what has been published, an unusually large number of investigators and scholars appear in a greater or lesser degree to have been influenced by Brentano. (Überweg-Heinze, in the eighth edition of the Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, reckons, as belonging to his school, six names of men at present occupying important positions as teachers of philosophy.)

One section of Brentano’s doctrine of sense-perception forms the substance of a lecture, Zur Lehre von der Empfindung, delivered at the Third International Psychological Congress held in Munich (1896), and published in the report of its proceedings (1897). A fragment of the above system of ethical inquiry, Über das Schlechte als Gegenstand dichterischer Darstellung (Leipzig, 1892), treats of the worth and preferability of the ideas employed by the artist.

With regard to psycho-genetic problems, apart from the question as to the meaning and validity of Fechner’s psycho-physical law, a question discussed in the first volume of his Psychology and elsewhere, and that of the spirituality and immortality of the soul, which formed repeatedly the substance of lectures at Vienna University, Brentano has especially occupied himself with the laws of the association of ideas. One result of this study is his lecture, Das Genie, published in 1892, which seeks to explain the artistic productions of men of genius—often regarded as something quite unique and inexplicable—as a development of psychical events which universally control our imaginative life.

Of Brentano’s researches in metaphysics and in the theory of knowledge it must also be said that hitherto they remain still unpublished, though they are familiar to a greater or smaller circle of disciples. In this latter sphere are to be mentioned particularly his inquiries respecting the nature of our insight into the law of causality, the logical justification of induction, the a priori nature of mathematics, and the nature of analytic judgments. In ontological questions also psychognosie has proved fruitful to the investigator in leading him to an understanding and to an analysis based upon experience, of the most important metaphysical notions, as, for instance, causality, substance, necessity, impossibility, etc., notions which some, despairing of the task rightly insisted upon by Hume, of showing their origin to be based upon perception and experience, have sought to explain straight away as a priori categories.

For the rest, Brentano, in regard to metaphysics, is a decided theist. He is an adherent of the theory of evolution, while denying that accidental variations and natural selection in the struggle for existence render explicable the phenomena of evolution and the teleological character of the organism, basing his objections, among other things, upon the fact that this attempt at a solution not only leaves unexplained the first beginnings of an organism, but also takes too little account of the fact that with the increasing perfection and complication of the organism it becomes more and more improbable that an accidental variation will lead to an improvement upon that which already exists. And yet if there is to be progress, the organisms which, in the struggle for existence, survive must not only be more perfect than those which perish, but also more perfect than the organisms through which they themselves are descended.

Brentano’s views on the historical development of philosophical inquiry and the causes determining that development, the present state of philosophy and its views regarding the future, he has set forth in various publications: Die Geschichte der Philosophie im Mittelalter (MÖhler’s Kirchengeschichte, vol. ii. 1868); Über die GrÜnde der Entmutigung auf philosophischem Gebiete (Vienna, 1874), delivered as an inaugural address on entering upon his work at Vienna University; Was fÜr ein Philosoph manchmal Epoche macht (Vienna, 1876); Über die Zukunft der Philosophie (Vienna, 1893); and Die vier Phasen der Philosophie und ihr augenblicklicher Stand (Stuttgart, 1895).

In the last work a concise survey is made of the entire course of the History of Philosophy, and it is there shown how in the three periods, rightly regarded as distinct (Greek Philosophy, the Philosophy of the Middle Ages, and Modern Philosophy), there is each time an analogous change, a rising or blossoming period, and three periods of decadence, of which those which succeed are always the psychologically necessary result of the preceding. That in so doing Brentano has characterized the latest phase of German philosophy, the so-called idealistic direction from Kant to Hegel as the third or mystic period of decadence (howbeit with all due recognition of the talents of these writers) has naturally aroused violent opposition, though it has not found any real refutation.

It has been already said that Brentano’s earliest efforts were directed to historical inquiries and especially to a presentation of the Aristotelian psychology and to important sections of his Metaphysics. The results of these researches, diverging as they did in many respects from the traditional view, did not fail to awaken the attention of other investigators. Their attitude, however (with a few exceptions like Trendelenburg, and in part also Grote), was, on the whole, hostile and polemic. This was especially so in the case of E. Zeller, in the later edition of his Greek Philosophy, and in view of the reputation which this work enjoys, Brentano thought it necessary to offer, as against Zeller’s attacks, at least with regard to one point, an apology for his own view, a point where the threads of metaphysics and psychology become most intimately related, and where at the same time, the contrast between the opposing views of these two writers in the psychological and metaphysical spheres alike culminate. And so there appeared in the Report of the Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna (1882) Brentano’s article: “Über den Creatianismus des Aristoteles, in regard to which E. Zeller in the same year, in the Report of the Proceedings of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, (vol. 49), published a detailed reply under the title: “Über die Lehre des Aristoteles von der Ewigkeit des Geistes.” The charge which is there made by Zeller against Brentano of interpreting Aristotle without sufficient confirmation and with over-confidence, Brentano has sufficiently repelled in his Offener Brief an Herrn Prof. Dr. E. Zeller (Leipzig, 1883), and the proofs which are here offered of the way in which Zeller, on his part, bases his own attempts at explanation and his charges against Brentano show distinctly that, if here one of the two opponents is really open to the charge of over-confidence, it is at any rate not Brentano.

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