Alfred Edmund Brehm

Under this head we class not only those members of the feathered race to which has been assigned, par excellence, the name of Birds of Prey, but include with them such families of Swallows and song birds as obtain the principal part of their food by the destruction of animal life. We are fully aware of the difficulties presented by this attempt at a simple and natural classification, which, like many similar efforts, must necessarily be very imperfect, and open to grave objection; but we have adopted it as rendering the general view of our subject more intelligible to the tyro in Ornithology.

All the very various groups we have thus combined under the general name of Catchers are endowed with powerful bodies and comparatively long wings, and, moreover, are remarkable for the velocity and grace of their movements through the air. Their beaks are short, hooked, and frequently rendered more formidable by the possession of a tooth-like appendage to the upper mandible, which fits into a corresponding cavity in the lower portion of the beak; their gape is always large, and often of such great extent as to appear out of proportion to the rest of the body; the crop is but slightly developed or is entirely wanting, and the gizzard a mere capacious bag, provided with strong muscular walls. In all other characteristics presented by the members of this very heterogeneous order so much dissimilarity is observable, that to avoid confusion we must confine ourselves to describing each group in its appointed place.

The Catchers are met with in all parts of the world, but it is only in the warmer climates that they are found in great numbers, or seem to exhibit the full development of their matchless powers, which are alike displayed amid the recesses of the forest or on the heights of mountain ranges; even the inhabitants of the water are not secure against their treacherous rapacity. Some groups carry on the work of destruction during the day, some prefer the evening for their excursions, while others only commence their murderous onslaughts when night has fully closed in, and given them the protection of its sheltering darkness. All have but one mate, and breed once or twice in the year. Their nests are often built with great skill, and usually placed in holes of trees, in crevices of walls and rocks, or, in some instances, upon the ground. The eggs vary from one to eight in number, and the young are tended with great affection by both parents.

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BIRDS OF PREY (Raptores).

The numerous species included in this group present a remarkable inequality of size, some vying with the largest members of the feathered race in the majestic development of their powerful bodies, whilst others are no bigger than a Lark; still, despite this difference, there is such an unmistakable impress upon their forms and plumage as renders it easy to distinguish a Bird of Prey at the first glance. All the members of this rapacious series are endowed with a powerful and compact frame, broad breasts, and strong limbs; the head is usually round, occasionally elongated, the neck short and muscular, the trunk robust, and the legs and wings exhibit such unmistakable strength in their formation as can leave no doubt as to the attributes of the bird, even should it be seen deprived of its feathers, beak, and claws. The beak is short, decidedly curved, hooked at its extremity, and covered with a cere at the base of the upper mandible; the latter is immovable, and somewhat compressed at its sides. The margins of the beak are not only very sharp, but are frequently rendered more terrible by the presence of a tooth-like projection from the upper mandible, which fits into a corresponding excavation in the lower jaw. In such species as are without this tooth-shaped appendage the margins of the upper mandible are waved and trenchant, distinctly indicating their carnivorous propensities. The feet are massive and strong, the toes long in proportion to the size of the tarsi, and very motile; both legs and feet are covered with scale-like plates, and the toes furnished with claws or talons, which are either curved and sharp or comparatively straight, but in both cases rounded above and channelled beneath in such a manner that the lower part of each claw presents two distinct sharp margins. The plumage is generally soft, and formed of large feathers, which are either thick, small, and firm, or broad, soft, and silky, or even woolly in their texture. The bridles, a place between the base of the beak and the eye, and the eye itself are frequently entirely naked, whilst, on the contrary, some members of this group are distinguished by a circle of radiating feathers surrounding the orbit. The quills that form the wings and tail are always of considerable size, and their number in most species is pretty nearly the same—that is to say, ten primaries, and at least twelve or at most sixteen secondaries, form the wings; the tail is composed almost invariably of twelve quills, which appear placed, as it were, in pairs. In some races the feathers cover not only the tarsi, but even the toes, where they are distinguished by the name of hose, a term that will be frequently employed in our descriptions of the birds with which we are about to deal. The plumage of the Raptores is usually dingy and sombre in its hues, though some few species exhibit considerable beauty of appearance, and the bare places on the head, the comb, wattles, bridles, cere, beak, feet, and eyes are occasionally brightly coloured. The internal construction of these birds is on a par with their external configuration; the skeleton is strong, and the sternum so large as to extend over the whole of the fore part of the breast; the keel is high, the bones of the wings comparatively long, and those of the legs powerfully developed. The bones of the entire skeleton are for the most part without marrow, and thus admit of the entrance of air, received from the large lungs and air-cells which extend throughout the body. The gullet is very dilatable, and is usually enlarged into a crop.

As we have said in our introductory chapter, the sight of the Raptores is very acute, and their eye adapts itself with remarkable facility to varying distances; and if any of our readers have tried the experiment of holding their hands alternately close to and at some distance from the eye of a Falcon, they have no doubt been astonished at witnessing the extraordinary dilations and contractions of which the pupil is capable. In some species the sense of hearing is also good, and we shall shortly have fully to describe the high degree of excellence observable in the structure of the ear of an Owl; their sense of smell, on the contrary, is by no means keen, and that of touch scarcely more acute or reliable. All Birds of Prey are remarkable for great courage, and exhibit such cruelty, rapacity, and cunning as cannot fail to render them terrible foes to all creatures weaker than themselves. In their relations to each other, on the contrary, the different species exhibit great affection; they combine readily in the defence of their companions, and do battle for them with the utmost devotion. To what perfection the intelligence of the Birds of Prey has been brought will be seen in our description of some of the services rendered to our forefathers by the Falcons. As regards their voices, few species are capable of uttering more than two or three harsh and unpleasing notes.

Plate 9 Cassell's Book of Birds

Plate 9 Cassell's Book of Birds

SPARROW-HAWK ____ Accipiter nisus

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All parts of the world afford everything that is necessary to the existence of these predatory races; they are as much at their ease upon beds of ice such as environ Greenland or Spitzbergen as upon the glowing sands of an African desert; they sweep over continents, and exhibit the utmost indifference whether they alight upon the gigantic trees of a primitive forest or upon the steeples of a densely populated city. As winter approaches, such of these winged freebooters as inhabit northern regions wander south, returning in the spring to their native haunts, each bird with its mate, and at once commence preparations for the reception of the single brood produced by the pair during the whole year. The eyrie, as the nest of a Bird of Prey is called, is usually situated in hollow trees, cavities in old walls, on lofty rocks, or among the most inaccessible branches of the forest, in some cases, though rarely, upon the ground; or they make a platform of boughs, upon which the eggs are deposited. When built upon trees or rocks these eyries are usually very firm and massive in their construction, the walls increasing in height and strength from year to year, as their occupants add to and repair them at the commencement of each season; the interior, however, is never deep, the bed for the young being gradually raised with the rest of the fabric. Large sticks are employed by some Eagles to form the outwork of the eyrie; Tschudi tells us that the Stone Eagle obtains the branches it requires by falling suddenly upon them with closed wings, and thus, by the weight of its body, breaking them from the trunk to which they belong; the branch is then carried off in its talons to the place where the nest is to be built. Such Birds of Prey as build in holes trouble themselves but little about the accommodation of their brood, and lay their eggs without any preparation upon the naked stone, or at the bottom of the cavity they have selected. During the time that these bold and daring birds are occupied in the choice of a mate terrible battles are of frequent occurrence, the spirited antagonists confronting each other on the wing, and fighting till one of them is compelled to quit the field, the combat being often renewed day after day for whole weeks together, until the weaker rival is fairly vanquished, and driven from the locality; the females never appear to mingle in the strife, and are treated throughout the breeding season with the utmost attention and tenderness by their victorious spouses. The eggs, which are from one to seven in number, are rough shelled, and either pure white, grey, or yellow, marked with spots and streaks of a darker shade. In general only the female broods, but she is relieved occasionally by the male bird, who is by no means behind the mother in attachment to the young, and will sometimes perish in endeavouring to ward off danger from his progeny. The nestlings are at first fed upon food half digested in the crop of their parents, and afterwards upon scraps of flesh. The preparation of the nutriment intended for the young usually devolves upon the mother, but both parents combine in watching over the safety of the little flock long after they are fully fledged.

All Birds of Prey procure their principal sustenance by murderous and incessant attacks upon the creatures that surround them; and, besides flesh, many will devour insects, eggs, worms, snails, garbage of all kinds, and, in some rare instances, fruit; they consume great quantities of food, but are also capable of fasting during a considerable period. Their digestive powers are such as to enable them to reduce bones and sinews to a pap; the feathers and hair of their prey are rolled into a ball, and from time to time ejected from the mouth. Perhaps few prejudices are more unjust than the ill-will and enmity with which men usually regard these voracious and daring races, whose destructive propensities are much more frequently employed in their service than in the injury of their property; the Secretary Vulture destroys the Cobra di Capello by crushing its head, whilst other species clear the streets of Africa and Southern Asia of a mass of filth and refuse which, if left to accumulate, would fill the air with poison and disseminate everywhere the seeds of death.

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The Raptores divide themselves naturally into three distinct and important groups, gradually connected by a great variety of species, which combine and blend, as it were, the particular characteristics of the more typical members of the order. These three groups are—

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The FALCONS, the VULTURES, and the OWLS. We have no hesitation in assigning to the Falcons the first place, both on account of their intelligence and the development of their corporeal attributes; but it is not so easy to decide between the merits of the Vultures and the Owls, as their claims upon our notice are very equal. We, however, regard the Vultures as the more highly gifted birds, and have, therefore, given them the second place upon our list.

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The FALCONS (FalconidÆ) are distinguished by their powerful, slender, and compact bodies, heads of medium size, and short necks. Their wings are large, usually pointed, but occasionally rounded at the extremity; the tail and feet are very various, both as regards formation and strength; the beak is short, and covered at its base with a cere, which is never concealed from view by feathers; the upper mandible is always hooked, and sometimes furnished with tooth-like projections. In some species the plumage covers not merely the entire body, but extends over the legs and feet, even to the toes; the feathers are sometimes short and coarse, and sometimes soft and silky in texture, but always very abundant. The eyes are bright and of moderate size, the crop is protuberant, but never globose. All the Falcons obtain their food by rapine, and may be regarded as the most daring and courageous of the feathered tribes.

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The NOBLE FALCONS (Falcones) are in every respect the most perfectly organised members of the group to which they belong; both as regards their strength and skill, and the perfection in which they display the characteristics peculiar to their race, they stand supreme. In these noble birds, as they are justly called, the body is very compact, the head moderate, the neck short, the wings long and pointed, the second and occasionally the third quill being longer than the rest. The beak is short but powerful, very decidedly arched at its base, hooked at the extremity, and furnished near its apex with a more or less highly developed tooth; the lower mandible is sharp at its edge, and has a hollow in which the tooth of the upper mandible can lodge. The talons of these Falcons are proportionately larger and more formidable than those of any other Bird of Prey; the leg is strong and muscular, and the tarsus short, the middle toe almost equalling it in length. The plumage is thick and harsh, the quills and tail-feathers of great strength. The region of the eye is bare, so as not to interfere with the scope of vision, presenting a naked ring, which is a distinguishing characteristic of the Noble Falcons. The plumage is usually of a light blueish grey above, whilst whitish grey, reddish yellow, or white predominate on the lower parts of the body; the cheeks are often curiously marked by a black streak, which has been called a beard. The males resemble the females in the coloration of their feathers, but are somewhat smaller. The young do not acquire the plumage of their parents until they are two or three years old.

Many of these birds migrate during the winter months, and spend a great portion of their time in flying over the face of the country, sweeping along with astonishing strength and rapidity, and rushing down upon their prey with a velocity that renders it impossible for the eye to follow their movements. Considerable variety is observable in the manner in which the flight of the different races of Falcons is accomplished, some moving slowly and with a hovering motion through the realms of air, others sustaining themselves for a considerable time in one spot by means of a gentle and tremulous agitation of the wings. The Noble Falcons, on the contrary, fly with quick short strokes, and an occasional gliding movement, sometimes soaring to an incredible height, and performing most varied and beautiful evolutions, more especially when they are endeavouring to attract the admiration of their mates; at other times they do not usually rise to more than 400 feet above the earth. When perching, the body, owing to the shortness of the feet, is of necessity held erect, but is kept in a horizontal position when walking on the ground, an act which they accomplish in the most awkward manner, endeavouring to render their progress more easy by a constant balancing of the wings. Early morning and evening are preferred by these Falcons for the pursuit of their prey, which they almost always capture whilst in flight, the booty being carried off to some retired spot, where they can devour it undisturbed and at leisure. Some species consume large quantities of insects, but no true Falcon in its free state will eat carrion. The process of digestion is accomplished during a light sleep into which these birds usually fall when satiated, and during which they sit perched upon some tree with streaming and disordered plumage. During the summer they live in pairs, and will allow no intruder to approach the spot where they have selected their building place, but at other seasons they occasionally associate with their congeners and form large flocks, which remain together for weeks and months at a time; towards Eagles or Owls, on the contrary, they exhibit the utmost enmity, and many are the sturdy combats that ensue should the rival marauders encroach upon each other's hunting grounds.

The eyrie of the Noble Falcons is usually very carelessly constructed, and, indeed, some of them will not take the trouble to make even ordinary preparation for their young, but seize upon the nests of some of the larger species of Ravens; whilst such as do build for themselves are content with almost any situation, and merely collect a rough heap of sticks in the holes of trees, rocks, old walls, or even on the ground, the only care for the comfort of the young family consisting in the arrangement of a slight bed of some fibrous material, upon which the brood is laid. The eggs, from three to seven in number, vary considerably in their appearance, but are for the most part round, rough-shelled, and of a pale reddish brown, marked with small spots and large patches of a darker shade. The female alone sits upon the nest, and is meanwhile tended with much assiduity by her mate, who endeavours to enliven her during the performance of her monotonous duty by every means in his power. The young receive the utmost care and attention from both parents, even after they have left the nest, and are instructed and defended from danger with most unwearying devotion.

Perhaps few creatures are so destructive to game and poultry as these Falcons, and yet for centuries they were regarded with distinguished favour by man, who had learnt how to subdue them to his service. So long ago as 400 years before Christ we hear of their being employed in the chase, and in the sixth century the passion for falconry had attained to such an extravagant excess that it was openly reprobated and forbidden in the churches; but even after this the barons, it is said, maintained their right to place their Falcons on the altar during the hours of Divine service. So violent was the rage for this pursuit in England that Edward III. commanded that those who killed a Falcon should be punished with death, and condemned to imprisonment for a year and a day whoever should take one of their nests. To such a high value had they risen in 1396 that the Duke of Nevers and many other noble captives were liberated by Bajazet on the payment of twelve white Falcons, sent to him by the Duke of Burgundy as their ransom. Francis I. kept no fewer than 300 of these valuable birds, which were reared under the care of an officer, who had fifteen noblemen and fifty falconers to assist him in his duties. In England hawking was performed on horseback or on foot—on horseback when in the fields and open country, and on foot when in the woods and coverts. In following the Hawk on foot it was usual for the sportsman to have a stout pole with him to assist him in leaping over little rivulets and ditches; this we learn from an historical fact related by Hall, who informs us that Henry VIII. pursuing his Hawk on foot at Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, attempted, with the assistance of his pole, to jump over a ditch that was half full of muddy water, the pole broke, and the king fell with his head into the mud, where he would have been stifled had not a footman leaped into the ditch and released His Majesty from his perilous situation. When the Hawk was not flying at her game, she was usually hoodwinked with a cap or hood provided for that purpose and fitted to her head, and this hood was worn abroad as well as at home. All Hawks taken upon "the fist," the term used for carrying them upon the hand, had strips of leather, called jesses, put about their legs, and the jesses were made sufficiently long for the knots to appear between the middle and little fingers of the hand that held them, so that the lunes, or small thongs of leather, might be fastened to them with two tyrrits, or rings, and the lunes were then loosely wound round the little finger. Lastly, their legs were adorned with bells fastened with rings of leather—each leg having one—the leathers to which the bells were attached were denominated bewits, and to the bewits was added the creance, or long string, by which, in tutoring, the bird was drawn back after she had been permitted to fly, a proceeding which was called the reclaiming of the Hawk. The bewits, we are informed, were for the purpose of keeping the Hawk from "winding when she bated," that is, when she fluttered her wings to fly after her game. Respecting the bells, it is particularly recommended that they should not be too heavy to impede the flight of the bird, and that they should be of equal weight, sonorous, shrill, and musical, not both of one sound, but the one a semitone below the other. The person who carried the Hawk was also provided with gloves for the purpose of preventing its talons from hurting his hands. In the inventories of apparel belonging to Henry VIII. such articles frequently occur; at Hampton Court, in the jewel house, were "seven Hawks' gloves embroidered."

Old books on hawking assign to different ranks of persons the sort of Hawks proper to be used by each, and they are enumerated in the following order:—

"The Eagle, the Vulture, and the Merloun—for an Emperor.

The Ger-faulcon, and the Tercel of the Ger-faulcon—for a King.

The Faulcon of the Rock—for a Duke.

The Faulcon Peregrine—for an Earl.

The Bastard—for a Baron.

The Sacre and the Sacret—for a Knight.

The Lanere and the Laneret—for an Esquire.

The Marlyon—for a Lady.

The Hobby—for a Young Man.

The Goshawk—for a Yeoman.

The Tercel—for a Poor Man.

The Sparrow Hawk—for a Priest.

The Musket—for a Holy Water Clerk.

The Kestrel—for a Knave or Servant."

The above list is interesting, as it may be presumed to contain the names applied to the greater part, if not all, of the birds used in hawking.

As in hunting, so in hawking the sportsmen had their peculiar expressions, and the uninitiated may read with advantage the terms employed to designate assemblages of various kinds of birds. Thus we read of a sege of Herons or of Bitterns, a herd of Swans, of Cranes, and of Curlews, a dopping of Sheldrakes, a spring of Teals, a covert of Coots, a gaggle of Geese, a badelynge of Ducks, a sord or sute of Mallards, a muster of Peacocks, a nye of Pheasants, a bevy of Quails, a covey of Partridges, a congregation of Plovers, a flight of Doves, a dole of Turtles, a walk of Snipes, a fall of Woodcocks, a brood of Chickens, a building of Rooks, a murmuration of Starlings, an exaltation of Larks, a flight of Swallows, a watch of Nightingales, and a charm of Goldfinches.

It will thus be seen that many technical expressions once employed in Falconry are still in common use.

The Mews at Charing Cross, Westminster, were so called from the word Mew, which, in Falconers' language was the name of the place wherein Hawks were kept at the moulting time, when they cast their feathers: the king's Hawks were kept at this place as early as 1377, at the beginning of the reign of Richard II., but A.D. 1537, the 27th of Henry VIII., it was converted into stables for that monarch's horses, and even up to the present time the word Mews is employed to designate London stables.

In Central Asia the use of these birds for hunting purposes appears to have been carried on with truly Eastern pomp and profusion, for Marco Polo, who wrote about the year 1290, tells us that when Kublai Khan quitted Hambul he took with him no fewer than 10,000 falconers, who were sent out in parties of from 200 to 300 men to hunt over different parts of the country, and were commanded to send all the game they obtained to their master.

ORIENTAL FALCONRY.

On these occasions the Khan rode upon an elephant, and was followed by 10,000 men, who stood in an enormous circle round him, ready to catch the Falcons and bring them back to their owners. Twelve of the finest birds were appropriated to the Sultan, and these, as well as those belonging to the principal nobles, were distinguished by a silver plate fastened to the leg, on which the name of their owner was written, whilst the Falcons belonging to inferior members of the suite were without the badge, and were handed over to the care of an officer appointed for their especial protection. Tavernier, who resided in Persia for many years in the seventeenth century, tells us that the King of Persia had 800 Falcons, of which some were taught to hunt wild boars, wild asses, antelopes, and foxes, and others trained to go in pursuit of Cranes, Herons, Geese, and Partridges; Chardin, another eastern traveller, informs us that the Persians trained them to fly at the heads of very large quadrupeds, or even men, and blind them. It would appear that this mode of hunting with Falcons is still practised in many provinces of Asia, and Sir John Malcolm, in his "Sketches of Persia," describes the sport of hawking as seen by him when at Abasheher on the Persian Gulf:—

"The huntsmen repair to a large plain, or rather desert, near the sea-side; they have Hawks and greyhounds; the Hawks are carried in the usual manner, on the hand of the huntsman; the dogs led in a leash by the horseman, generally the same who carries the Hawk. When an antelope is seen, they endeavour to get as near as possible, but the animal, the moment it observes them, goes off at a rate that seems swifter than the wind; the horsemen are instantly at full speed, having slipped the dogs. If it is a single deer, they at the same time fly the Hawks, but if a herd, they wait till the dogs have fixed on a particular antelope. The Hawks, skimming along near the ground, soon reach the deer, at whose head they pounce in succession, and sometimes with a violence that knocks it over; at all events they confuse the animal so much as to stop its speed in such a degree that the dogs can come up, and in an instant men, horses, dogs, and Hawks, surround the unfortunate deer, against which their united efforts have been combined. The part of the chase that surprised me most was the extraordinary combination of the Hawks and the dogs, which throughout seemed to look to each other for aid; this, I was told, was the result of long and skilful training. The Hawks used in this sport are of a species I have never seen in any other country; the breed, which is called 'Cherkh,' is not large, but of great beauty and symmetry.

"The novelty of these amusements interested me, and I was pleased on accompanying a party to a village, about twenty miles from Abasheher, to see a species of hawking, peculiar, I believe, to the sandy plains of Persia, on which the Hubara, a noble species of Bustard is found on almost bare plains, where it has no shelter but a small shrub, called 'yeetuck.' When we met in quest of them we were a party of about twenty, all well mounted. Two kinds of Hawks are necessary for this sport; the first, the Cherkh (the same which is flown at the antelope) attacks them on the ground, but will not follow them on the wing; for this reason, the Bhyree, a Hawk well known in India, is flown at them the moment the Hubara rises. As we rode along in an extended line, the men who carried the Cherkhs every now and then unhooded and held them up, that they might look over the plain, and the first Hubara we found afforded us a proof of the astonishing quickness of sight of one of the Hawks. She fluttered to be loose, and the man who held her gave a whoop as he threw her off his hand, and then set off at full speed; we all did the same. At first we only saw our Hawk skimming over the plain, but soon perceived, at the distance of more than a mile, the beautiful speckled Hubara, with his head erect and wings outspread, running forward to meet his adversary; the Cherkh made several unsuccessful pounces, which were either evaded or repelled by the beak or wings of the Hubara, which at last found an opportunity of rising, when a Bhyree was instantly flown, and the whole party were again at full gallop; we had a flight of more than a mile, when the Hubara alighted, and was killed by another Cherkh, who attacked him on the ground. We killed several others, but were not always successful, having seen our Hawks twice completely beaten during the two days that we followed this fine sport."

According to Jerdon, the Bedouins of the Sahara capture large numbers of Peregrine Falcons, and sell them to men who train them to pursue Bustards, Storks, Ibises, and various quadrupeds. The Heron alone, of all birds, seems capable of resisting these terrible assailants, and will sometimes defend itself so courageously with its beak as to drive off the enemy, should the latter not have sufficient experience to seize the Heron by the nape of the neck. In England the pursuit of the Heron by means of Falcons was practised until very recently, and Sir John Sebright gives the following account of Heron hawking as practised at Didlington in Norfolk:—

"This heronry is situated on a river, with an open country on every side of it. The Herons go out in the morning to rivers and ponds, at a very considerable distance, in search of food, and return to the heronry towards the evening. It is at this time that the falconers place themselves in the open country, down wind of the heronry, so that when the Herons are intercepted on their return home, they are obliged to fly against the wind to gain their retreat. When a Heron passes, a cast (a couple) of Hawks is let go. The Heron disgorges his food when he finds that he is pursued, and endeavours to keep above the Hawks by rising in the air. The Hawks fly in a spiral direction to get above the Heron, and thus the three birds frequently appear to be flying in different directions. The first Hawk makes his stoop as soon as he gets above the Heron, who evades it by a shift, and thus gives the second Hawk time to get up and stoop in his turn. In what is termed a good flight this is frequently repeated, and the three birds often mount to a great height in the air. When one of the Hawks seizes his prey, the other soon binds to him, as it is termed, and, buoyant from the motion of their wings, the three descend together to the ground, with but little velocity. The falconer must lose no time in getting hold of the Heron's neck when he is on the ground, to prevent him from injuring the Hawks; it is then, and not when he is in the air, that he will use his beak in his defence."

The Schahin, or Royal Falcon (Falco peregrinator), is highly prized by the Hindoos, who catch large numbers annually. When in pursuit of game, this latter species is not loosened from the huntsman's hand, but is permitted to soar aloft in freedom until its prey is roused, when it swoops down upon it with unerring aim.

The HUNTING FALCONS (Hierofalco), the most prized of the Falcon family, inhabit the more northern portions of the globe, and are at once recognisable by their very large bodies, strong and decidedly curved beaks, long tails, and the fact that the feet are only partially covered with feathers; in other respects they closely resemble other Noble Falcons. We have divided these birds into three groups, which we shall call respectively the Hunting, the Polar, and the Gier Falcons. The two former of these sections bear a close resemblance to each other as to plumage, and the young of all three are so much alike as almost to baffle even the eye of a practised naturalist. The plumage of the Hunting Falcon (Hierofalco candicans) is white, marked with longitudinal dark streaks, whilst that of the Polar Falcon (Hierofalco Arcticus) is white, with irregular dark blotches; as both species advance in years, these dark marks gradually fade, and the plumage becomes a most pure and beautiful white. In the young birds the back is greyish brown or deep grey, with very distinct streaks and spots; the feathers upon the top of the head have black shafts, and vary considerably in their shade; the wings and tail are broadly striped, and the lower parts of the body are fawn colour; the brown eye is surrounded by a bare greenish yellow ring. In the old birds the feet are pale yellow, the beak yellowish blue, becoming darker towards the tip, and the cere yellow; the feet of the young are blue. The plumage of the Gier Falcon (spelt also Ger, Jer, and Gyr), on the contrary, is deep greyish blue, striped with black upon the upper part of the body; the tail is light greyish blue, striped with a deeper shade; the quills are brownish black, the breast and belly are grey or yellowish white, marked with long dark streaks, varied upon the sides and hose by irregular spots. The coat of the young is dark brown above, and of a light greyish yellow beneath, streaked with a deeper shade. Nestlings of this species are scarcely distinguishable from Peregrine Falcons of similar age. All these three groups of Hunting Falcons are nearly of the same size; the females being about one foot eleven inches in length, and four feet in breadth; the tail measures about nine inches, and the wing fifteen inches.

The Hunting Falcon and the Polar Falcon both inhabit Greenland and Iceland; the Gier Falcon, on the contrary, is met with in the most northerly parts of Scandinavia, Russia, and Siberia, and, according to our own observations, is the only species of Hunting Falcon found in Lapland. We must speak collectively of the habits of these three groups, concerning whose respective peculiarities we are almost entirely without information. All appear to prefer such rocky localities as are in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea coast, and upon which hundreds and thousands of sea birds settle during the breeding season; nevertheless, they do not entirely avoid the wooded parts of the country, for such amongst them as are too young to pair make long excursions inland, even occasionally visiting the mountain ranges of the interior, amongst which the old birds are rarely or never seen. The attachment of these various species to their breeding places is very remarkable; they return to them with such unfailing regularity that we were once accurately directed where to look for an eyrie, even though our informant had neither seen the spot nor heard it spoken of for many years; in their other habits they closely resemble the Peregrine Falcon.

During the summer months they subsist upon sea birds, in the winter upon Ptarmigans, and, according to some naturalists, will devour hares, and live upon squirrels for whole months together. We were on one occasion for three days in the vicinity of the Nyken (two mountains much frequented by sea birds), and watched a pair of Gier Falcons come down morning after morning punctually at ten o'clock, in order to obtain their breakfast. This was very speedily accomplished; both took a rapid survey of the feathered swarm they were about to attack, and then, swooping down with unerring aim, carried off one bird after another until they had obtained the necessary supply. Holwell mentions having seen a Polar Falcon pounce upon two Sea Gulls at the same time, and bear them away in triumph one in each foot; they are also said to destroy Pigeons. At the close of the breeding season the Hunting Falcons often come down from their retirement and approach the dwellings of man, towards whom they exhibit but little fear. When winter approaches they follow the Ptarmigans to their retreats amongst the mountains, and so great is the dread in which the latter holds their cruel and insatiable enemy, that they will frequently endeavour to bury themselves in the snow, if safety by flight seems to be hopeless. When in pursuit of the squirrel their ordinary mode of attack would, of course, be impossible, as the creature is protected by the sheltering trees; the Hunting Falcons, therefore, at once change their tactics, and display a patience and cunning in watching for and stealing upon their victims that strikingly contrasts with their ordinary precipitate and open butchery.

According to Faber, the True Hunting Falcon builds its large flat eyrie amid the fastnesses of some inaccessible rock in the immediate vicinity of the ocean, whilst the Gier Falcon prefers to avoid all the labour of preparation by taking violent possession of the nest of some large Crow. The eggs of the Polar Falcon are laid about June or July, those of the Gier Falcon, according to Nardoi, are usually laid as early as April, though we have found them in the month of July. The colour and size of the eggs is very varied, but those of the Polar Falcon are largest, and have the roughest shell.

Some centuries ago a Danish vessel called the Falcon Ship was sent every year to bring these birds from Iceland, and live Falcons are still exported every year to Copenhagen. Large numbers are killed in Iceland and Greenland on account of the mischief they do, but in the north of Asia they are still reared and trained for the chase. In Lapland and Scandinavia they are never captured except for the naturalist. The Raven is the only feathered enemy against whose attacks the Hunting Falcons have to be upon their guard.

The WANDERING FALCONS (Falco) differ from the last-mentioned birds in the inferiority of their size, and the construction of the beak, which is smaller and more decidedly curved; the feet are not so entirely covered with feathers, and the tail is somewhat shorter in comparison with the wings.

THE PEREGRINE FALCON.

The Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) is the member of the family with which we are most familiar. The plumage of the old bird is light slate colour on the upper part of the body, and marked with dark grey triangular spots, which produce a striped effect; the brow is grey, the tail striped with bright grey and bordered with yellow towards the tips of the feathers; the wing-quills are greyish black, the inner web being marked with reddish-yellow spots arranged in stripes; the throat is yellow, and marked by two black streaks that commence on the cheeks; the lower part of the breast and belly are reddish yellow, the former streaked with brownish yellow and marked with lozenge-shaped spots; the hinder part of the body is striped with dark irregular patches. During the life of the birds the plumage is covered with a greyish dust. The female is brighter in colour than her mate. The iris is dark brown, the cere, corners of the mouth, and bare places around the eyes are yellow. The young are blackish grey upon the upper part of the body, every feather being bordered with reddish yellow; the throat and upper part of the breast are white or greyish yellow, streaked with light or dark brown; the beak is light blue, the cere and naked places on the head blueish or greenish yellow. The old male is from sixteen to eighteen inches long, and from thirty to forty broad, whilst the female, on the contrary, is from eighteen to twenty-one inches long, and forty to forty-two inches broad; the wing measures from fourteen to fifteen and a half inches, and the tail six and a half to seven and a half inches.

The name of Peregrine or Wandering Falcon most accurately describes the habits of this species, which is found almost throughout the wide world. Its habitat extends from Northern Asia and Western Europe, and during the breeding season it frequents the northern coasts of the Mediterranean. As winter approaches it migrates to Africa, visiting the very heart of that continent, and occasionally making its appearance in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope. According to Jerdon, the Peregrine Falcon is regularly met with in India throughout the cold season, during which it roams about the country lying between the Himalaya Mountains and Cape Comorin, but is seen in the greatest numbers on the coast or upon the banks of rivers. These birds appear in India towards the first week in October and leave again in April, but never breed there. The species inhabiting America also migrates farther south, but we cannot speak with certainty as to their being found in Mexico, though we have known instances in which they have flown across the Gulf of Mexico—indeed, so great are their powers of endurance when upon the wing that a distance of a hundred miles seems to be regarded as a mere pleasure excursion by these restless marauders. The Wandering Falcon is very courageous, and its powerful body and bright intelligent eye clearly indicate a high standing in respect to its natural gifts. When about to take flight this species usually spreads its tail, and flies for a short distance close to the ground before rising into the air, where its course is very rapid, and produced by quick, hurried strokes of the pinions; during the period of incubation it soars to a considerable height, but at other seasons keeps comparatively near the earth, and is easily recognised by its slender form, narrow tail, and long, pointed wings. Dense woods afford these birds the retreats they prefer, and even there they rarely retire to rest until late in the evening, selecting their sleeping place with great care in some thickly-covered nook: whilst reposing they perch upon a branch with the neck drawn in so completely as to give their head the appearance of growing from the shoulders, the black cheeks and white throat adding considerably to their striking appearance as they sit warily upon their guard against approaching danger. The cry of this species is powerful and full-toned, but is rarely heard except during the breeding season.

Nothing can exceed the terror in which the Peregrine Falcon is regarded by such of its feathered brethren as cannot compete with it in strength or activity—indeed, no bird from a Wild Goose to a Lark is safe from its murderous attacks. Its prey, which is usually seized when upon the wing, is made to rise from the ground by a variety of tactics. A Partridge it terrifies by performing gyrations above its head, until the frightened creature endeavours to seek safety in flight; Pigeons are often so panic-stricken as to plunge into the water, and Ducks are frequently so overcome with fear and exhausted with their struggles as to be powerless to dive, and thus to elude the dreaded foe. Rapidity of flight is no security against its attacks. Some species of Pigeons endeavour to save themselves by crowding close together in a thick mass, and quitting the locality with all possible expedition; but even this stratagem rarely meets with complete success, for some weary straggler is pretty certain to fall into the clutches of the ever-watchful enemy, who darts down upon its victim like an arrow from a bow. Immense numbers of Crows are also destroyed by these birds, who often subsist for whole weeks together upon their flesh: despite the well-known courage of the Crow, it seems to consider, when brought face to face with this powerful tyrant, that "discretion is the better part of valour," and at once endeavours to slink off unobserved, or beat a very undignified retreat; all attempts at flight are, however, perfectly hopeless, for so rapid is the speed of the pursuer that the eye cannot follow its course, as it flashes down with a whizzing sound, and pounces fiercely upon its almost paralysed victim—indeed, so incredibly powerful is the shock with which the Peregrine Falcon occasionally descends, that instances have been known in which the pursuer has actually killed or stunned itself by the violence of its swoop, or has plunged to such a depth in the water, when endeavouring to seize a duck, as to have been drowned in the attempt. Large birds, such as Wild Geese, are generally disposed of while upon the ground, as their size would render it impossible to contend with them in the air, and the flesh is devoured upon the spot where the victim is killed; more portable prey, on the contrary, is carried off to some quiet retreat, where it can be eaten at leisure. Small birds are entirely consumed, but larger kinds are stripped of a portion of the feathers, and the entrails are thrown aside as unfit for food.

Every variety of situation seems to be regarded with favour by this species, and it will live as comfortably in a crowded city as on precipitous and impassable mountain ranges; when about to breed, however, a decided preference is shown for the latter situation, as affording ready-made holes, which require but little labour to convert them into dwellings for the young; hollow forest trees are also employed for this purpose, and a pair of Wandering Falcons often render their preparatory exertions still more light by the appropriation of a Crow's nest. The eyrie is very slightly constructed of twigs or brushwood, and the eggs, three or four in number, are laid about May or June; these are round, of a yellowish red, spotted with brown. The task of brooding devolves entirely upon the female; the young are fed at first upon half digested flesh, and afterwards with the same in its fresh state. When fledged they are carefully instructed in all the arts required in their freebooting life, and only withdraw themselves from their parents' protection when fully competent to do battle with any member of the numerous species against which their family wages constant war.

One strange habit of the Peregrine Falcon must not be passed over without notice—namely, that at the very first attack made upon it by even the most insignificant and cowardly of feathered assailants, it will at once throw down its prey, or even allow it to be seized and carried off by foes of so timid a character that a spirited clucking hen might drive them from the spot. We have ourselves seen in North-eastern Africa one of these fierce and strong marauders resign possession of three Ducks in succession when beset by an impudent party of feathered mendicants, amongst which the prey was dropped without even an attempt at resistance. Most serious and extensive is the destruction caused by these birds, and since the days of falconry have passed away no service rendered by them can in any degree compensate for the many injuries they inflict upon our property—indeed, but little can be said in their favour, except that they are imposing in their appearance when sailing through the realms of air.

When caged they will sometimes live for many years, and exhibit surprising voracity. Naumann mentions having kept a Peregrine Falcon for some time in confinement, and tells us that on one occasion it devoured the whole of a fox in the course of two days; three Crows were only sufficient for one day's provision, but, on the other hand, it could, if required, fast for a whole week; this bird would seize six Sparrows at a time, three in each foot, and dispatch them, as it squatted on the ground, by biting one after the other through the head, laying down each victim in succession until all were killed.

THE RED-NECKED FALCON.

The Red-necked Falcon (Falco ruficollis), the smallest and most beautiful of the many kinds found in Asia and Africa, is very nearly related to the bird above described, and is replaced in India by a very similar species called the Turumdi (Falco Chiquera). The head and nape of the neck of the Falco ruficollis are rust red, streaked here and there with a dark shade upon the shafts of the feathers; the back, wing-covers, and small quills are of a deep grey (which during the life of the bird has a blueish gloss), and is marked with irregular black spots; the shoulder is light reddish yellow, the tail is dark grey, with a broad white tip, and ornamented with eight or ten white stripes; the throat is also white, the fore part of the neck, breast, belly, and thighs are light yellowish red, thickly marked with dark grey stripes; the very prominent beard and a streak over the eyes are black, the eye itself is deep brown, the beak greenish yellow, tipped with greyish blue; the feet are light orange. The male is eleven inches long, and twenty-two inches broad; the wings measure seven inches, and the tail four inches and a quarter. The female, on the contrary, is thirteen inches long, twenty-six and a half broad; her wing measures about eight inches, and her tail five inches and a half.

According to our own observations these beautiful birds are met with south of sixteen degrees north latitude, exclusively frequenting date palms, the broad, fan-like leaves of which form a capital foundation on which to build their eyries. Only on one occasion have we ever seen them on any other tree, but Heuglin tells us that in Central Africa they are also found amongst the DhulÉb palms. A solitary tree of this description is sufficient to induce a couple to settle upon it, and from this lofty and commanding eminence they descend to capture such Weaver Birds, or other small feathered victims, as approach them, darting upon them with a velocity and dexterity that, in our opinion, will bear comparison with the powers of flight possessed by any of their congeners. Large birds they seldom or never attack, and will live not only at peace with them, but actually allow one kind, the Guinea Pigeon (Stictoenas Guinea), to build upon the same branch. We never succeeded in our endeavours to inspect one of their eyries closely, as the DhulÉb palm is quite inaccessible to climbers.

We shall confine ourselves to Jerdon's description of the Turumdi. This bird is found throughout the whole of India, but is most numerous in the open country, where it prefers the vicinity of man, and rather avoids than seeks the recesses of the woods and forests. It hunts in pairs, and lives principally upon small birds, such as Larks, Sparrows, or Water Wagtails, and will eat field mice. The eyrie of the Turumdi is built at the summit of a lofty tree, and usually contains four eggs of a yellowish brown colour, sprinkled with brown spots. The young leave the nest at the end of March or beginning of April. This species is sometimes tamed by the Hindoos, and employed in the pursuit of Quails, Partridges, and similar birds. We have known instances in which they have been trained by their masters to hunt in parties.

THE TREE FALCON.

The Tree Falcon (Hypotriorchis subbuteo) is but little inferior to those we have described, either in its powers or the nobility of its appearance. The members of the family of which this bird is the type are smaller than the Falcons we have mentioned, and are distinguished by their elongated bodies, comparatively long and sickle-shaped wings, which extend as far as, or in some instances beyond, the extremity of the tail. The Tree Falcon is twelve inches long, and thirty broad; the wing measures nine and a half, and the tail nine inches; the female is one inch and a half longer, and from two to three inches broader than her mate. The entire upper portion of the body is blueish black, the head of a greyish shade; the nape is spotted with white, the quills black, bordered with reddish yellow, and marked upon the inner web with from five to nine reddish irregularly oval patches. The tail-feathers are slate colour above, grey beneath, and ornamented on the inner web with eight irregular reddish-yellow spots, which form a kind of border; the two middle feathers are without these spots. The lower part of the body is white or yellowish white, marked from the head downwards with longitudinal black streaks; the wings and lower tail-covers are beautiful rust red; the beard is very plainly indicated; the eye is dark brown, the naked ring by which the latter is surrounded, the cere, and feet are yellow; the beak is dark blue at its tip, and of a lighter shade towards its base. In the plumage of the young birds the blueish-black feathers that cover the back are bordered with reddish yellow; the light spot upon the nape is larger than in the adult, and of a yellow colour; the lower part of the body whitish yellow, marked with long black streaks; the wings, lower wing-covers, and clothing of the legs are yellowish, the feathers of which the latter are formed having black shafts.

This species inhabits the whole continent of Europe and the cooler portions of Asia; it also visits India in large numbers during the winter, but is rarely seen in Northern Africa. Eversmann tells us that it is found in great numbers in the country near the Ural Mountains. In the central portion of our continent it usually makes its home amongst the trees of the open country, rarely visiting the forests, except during the course of its migrations; in these countries it is a summer guest, leaving about September or October, and returning in April. The flight of the Tree Falcon is extremely rapid, and bears some resemblance to that of the Swallow; the wings are held somewhat arched, and their stroke is short and quick; its evolutions through the air are often extremely beautiful, and are characterised by light and graceful gyrations as it rises aloft or sinks rapidly to the ground. The Tree Falcon, as its name suggests, usually prefers to perch upon trees, and but rarely seeks the ground, except when engaged in devouring its prey. The migratory season commences in autumn, and during their journeyings the pairs keep together with the utmost constancy, in spite of the many fights and squabbles that arise amongst the members of the party. The voice of this bird is clear and not unpleasing, though it consists but of a single note. In its habits it is extremely intelligent, and so very shy and cautious that it only ventures to yield to sleep when the darkness of night has fully closed in.

Field Larks appear to be the favourite food of the Tree Falcon, though it by no means objects to other birds—indeed, it is regarded as a formidable enemy even by the most rapid of the Swallow tribe. Naumann tells us that an instance came under his own observation in which a Swallow was so terrified at the appearance of one of these redoubtable enemies that it fell as though dead to the ground, and only ventured to open its eyes and give signs of life some little time after he had taken it in his hand. Occasionally, if hotly pursued and other means of escape appear impossible, Larks will seek refuge and hide themselves near the protecting feet of the ploughman or of horses, as they wend their way about the fields. Swallows endeavour to save themselves by uniting into flocks, and whirling at a respectful distance above the heads of their dread pursuers. The Tree Falcons will also catch insects when upon the wing, and devour large numbers of grasshoppers, dragon-flies, and ants during the whole time that the latter are engaged in swarming.

The eyrie is usually built upon a high tree, and resembles those of other Falcons as regards its exterior, but the interior is lined with wool, hair, or some other soft and elastic material. The eggs are laid in July, and are from three to five in number, and of a greyish white or greenish colour, covered with light reddish-brown spots, which are most thickly distributed over the broad end. Lenz tells us that one Tree Falcon will destroy no fewer than 1,095 small birds annually. This species was formerly trained for hunting purposes, and is, when domesticated, one of the most intelligent and docile of its family.

THE BERIGORA.

The Berigora (Jeracidea Berigora) is the most remarkable among the many birds of prey inhabiting New Holland, and constitutes, as it were, a connecting link between the Noble Falcons and the next group. The Berigora possesses the general shape and beak of the Falcons already described, but is distinguished from them by the inferior strength of its wings, in which the third quill is longer than the rest, as well as by the length and slender formation of the tarsi, and toes furnished with claws of no great strength. The length of the male is about sixteen inches, the female is somewhat larger, but exactly resembles her mate in the colour of her plumage. The feathers upon the top of the head are reddish brown, with fine black streaks upon the shafts; the middle of the back is reddish brown, the shoulders, wing-covers, and tail-feathers are brown, edged and spotted with a reddish shade; the throat, breast, middle of the belly, and lower wing-covers are pale fawn colour, with a delicate brown line passing along each side of the shaft; the feathers that cover the sides are reddish brown, surrounded by a border of yellowish-white spots; the hose are brown, spotted with red; the secondary quills are blackish brown, marked upon the inner web with large fawn-coloured patches. The cere and eye-rings are light blue, the beak lead colour at its base and black at the tip; the eyes are of very deep brown.

The Berigora is met with throughout the whole of Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales, where it lives in large flocks, except during the period of incubation, when each pair dwells apart from the rest. The food of this species consists principally of reptiles and insects, but it will also devour small birds and quadrupeds, and by no means despises carrion. The settlers regard these birds with great disfavour, on account of the number of young Chickens they manage to abstract from the farmyards, and seem entirely to overlook the many and great services they render by the destruction of enormous numbers of insects and caterpillars. The eyrie is built near the summit of the highest gum-trees, and the eggs, which are laid about October and November, differ so considerably in their hues that two of a brood are seldom alike; various shades of whitish fawn-colour, spotted with pale reddish brown, usually predominate.

The KESTRELS (Tinnunculus) form a group that stands next in order to the True Falcons, from which they are distinguished by the inferiority of their destructive powers. They all resemble their more highly gifted brethren in their general form, as well as in the structure of the beak, wings, and tail, but are recognisable by their lax and streaming plumage, the comparative weakness of the quills that form the wings, the length of the tail, their strong and short-toed feet, and, lastly, by the difference in the colour of their feathers, which varies with the sex.

THE LARK KESTREL.

The Lark Kestrel (Tinnunculus alaudarius) is a very handsome bird, about twelve and a half inches long, and twenty-seven broad; the wing measures nine inches and a quarter, and the tail six inches and a quarter. The feathers upon the head, nape, and tail of the male are grey, terminating in a blueish-black patch, bordered with white; the mantle is of a beautiful yellowish red, each feather being tipped with a triangular spot; the throat is whitish yellow, the breast and belly reddish grey or pale yellow, streaked longitudinally with black; the wing-feathers are black, marked with from six to twelve triangular white or reddish spots upon the inner web, and have a light border towards the tip; the pupil of the eye is dark brown, the beak greyish brown, the cere and bare places round the eyes are greenish yellow, and the feet lemon colour. The cheeks are ornamented by a very distinct streak. In the female the upper part of the body, as far as the top of the back, is of the hue of red chalk, marked with longitudinal black marks; the feathers on the back are ornamented with irregular spots, the tail is greyish red, with broad and narrow stripes, and the rump is grey. The colours upon the lower parts of the body are the same as those of the male. The plumage of the young birds resembles that of the mother.

This species is found throughout the whole of Europe, especially frequenting mountainous districts; it is most numerous in the southern countries of our continent, where it is considered as a summer bird, and whence it migrates as winter approaches. It usually frequents lofty trees, old ruins, and rocks, where it constructs its eyrie. The nest externally resembles those of its congeners, but is lined with roots, stubble, moss, and the hair of various animals. The brood consists of from four to seven round eggs, of a white or reddish-yellow colour, spotted with brownish red. The care of hatching the young family devolves entirely upon the female parent, who feeds her charge principally with mice and insects; they will also eat lizards, frogs, or young birds.

THE KESTREL.

The Kestrel (Tinnunculus cenchris) is a species very similar to the bird above described, and likewise inhabits the southern countries of Europe. The male is twelve inches long and twenty-six inches broad; the wing measures ten inches and the tail five and a half. The body of the female is somewhat larger than that of her mate, being thirteen inches long, and twenty-eight across the span of the wings. The plumage of the male bird is of a blueish grey upon the head, large wing-covers, posterior quills, and tail; the back is brick red, the feathers upon the breast yellowish red, marked with very small, often scarcely perceptible, spots; the tail is tipped with black. The eyes are dark brown, the beak light brown, and the feet lemon colour; the claws are yellowish white. The female closely resembles the female Lark Kestrel in appearance, but is paler in colour, and, moreover, recognisable by its whitish-blue tail and white claws. The young are like the mother.

Spain and the neighbouring islands, Malta, South Italy, and particularly Greece, together with some of the countries lying still farther east, form the habitat of these birds; they are also very common upon some of the Russian steppes, but are rarely met with in mountainous districts. Such lowland regions as are in the immediate neighbourhood of water afford them the retreats they prefer, as there they find that unfailing supply of insect nourishment upon which they almost entirely rely. This species appears in Greece at the end of March, and migrates about the end of September. The eggs are usually laid at the bottom of some old wall or in the roofs of houses, whether the latter are inhabited or not. The brood consists of from four to six eggs, closely resembling those of the species last mentioned, but rather smaller (see Coloured Plate IV., Fig. 19). During the period of incubation the parents are often so intent on their duties that they will allow themselves to be captured by hand. The flight of the Kestrels is light and rapid, but far inferior to that of the True Falcon; occasionally they will soar high into the air, but usually fly at no great distance from the earth; when about to seize their prey, they hover before descending, performing the latter movement with considerable celerity. Whilst perching, the plumage is allowed to droop carelessly, and thus gives the bird the appearance of being larger than is actually the case. Upon the ground they have the advantage over the True Falcons, as the greater length of the tarsi renders their movements light and easy.

As regards the perfection of their senses they are by no means behind their more powerful kindred, though they differ from the latter considerably in disposition, being extremely lively and bold. Above all things they seem to delight in tormenting birds much larger than themselves; they pursue the most formidable amongst the many tyrants of the air without the slightest fear, and persecute and annoy the Screech Owl incessantly; they will often confront even man himself with great spirit and determination, and in some countries live upon the most friendly terms with the inhabitants of the houses in the thatch of which they lay their eggs. Their cry is a clear cheerful note, which varies in its sound according to the feeling it is intended to express. When caged they may be rendered extremely tame, so that they may be permitted to fly in and out, and will come at their master's call.

The Kestrels usually leave their sleeping-places very early in the morning, and continue to sweep over the face of the country long after the shades of evening have closed in. When about to migrate they assemble in large flocks, which remain associated until they return in the spring. Jerdon tells us that both species are regular visitors to Southern Asia, and we ourselves have seen great swarms of them in Central Africa during the months that form our cold season. Districts abounding in locusts are generally preferred as winter quarters, such localities affording an inexhaustible supply of food; indeed, those who have never seen an army of locusts can form no adequate idea of the immense numbers in which they are often met with; whole tracts of woodland are completely covered by them, and their hosts darken the air whenever they are roused from their work of devastation. To the Kestrels these swarms furnish a rich field for exertion and active enjoyment; perched upon the highest branches of the mimosa, they await the moment when the locusts take wing, and then dart upon their prey; in vain the insect endeavours to free itself by biting the enemy's foot; the powerful antagonist makes short work of its struggles by crushing the head; the wings and feet are then torn off, and devoured while the bird hovers in the air. We have often amused ourselves by shaking the trees or bushes, and thus rousing the locusts, in order to enjoy the pleasure of seeing the dexterity displayed by the Kestrels during these onslaughts; for, strange to say, the insects appeared fully to understand their danger, and used all possible means to avoid their evidently dreaded enemies.

THE RED-FOOTED OR EVENING FALCON.

The Red-footed or Evening Falcon (Erythropus vespertinus), one of the most beautiful members of this group, inhabits Southern Europe. It is distinguished from the Kestrels by the comparative shortness of its beak and tail, and by the great variety observable in the plumage, which differs not only with the sex but according to the age of the bird. The male of this species is about twelve inches long and thirty inches broad; the tail measures about five inches. The female is one inch and a half longer and two inches broader than her mate. When the male is in its full beauty the middle of the belly, hose, and under tail-covers are of a bright rust red, the rest of the plumage being of an uniform slate colour, the tail somewhat darker in hue than the other feathers. The cere, the bare place round the eyes, and the feet are brick red; the beak is yellow at its base and greyish blue towards the tip. The head and nape of the female are light rust red, the rest of the body blueish grey, striped with a darker shade upon the mantle and tail; the beard is brown, but with this exception, the front of the throat and sides of the neck are entirely white; the lower parts of the body are reddish, some of the shafts of the feathers being streaked with brown; the cere, eye-rings, and feet are orange. In the young birds the upper part of the body is dark brown, having every feather bordered with reddish yellow; the tail is of the latter colour, and marked with eleven or twelve dark streaks; the belly is reddish white, and the bare spots are lighter than in the female; the pupil of the eye is invariably brown.

The Red-footed Falcon inhabits the South-eastern parts of Europe and Central Asia, and is but rarely seen in the western countries of our continent; the extensive steppes of Hungary, Russia, and Asia must be regarded as its actual habitat, and from these tracts it migrates about August or September to India (it seldom visits either Egypt or Africa), and returns to Europe early in the spring. So closely does this species resemble the Kestrel in its movements, that when seen flying or perching it is extremely difficult to distinguish the one from the other, and the sound of their voices is almost identical; but when upon the ground the Red-footed Falcon is more active than the Kestrel; it lives almost entirely upon insects, and devours enormous numbers of grasshoppers, butterflies, beetles, and dragon-flies, usually capturing its prey when upon the wing. The eggs, four or five in number, are laid about May; they are small and round, with a very thin, yellow shell, marked with various spots of dark and light reddish brown. It is no uncommon circumstance for a pair of these Falcons to seize upon a Magpie's nest; and as the owner is generally not inclined to resign possession quietly, but calls loudly to its companions for assistance, long and severe are the battles that ensue. The young leave the nest about April, and are carefully trained in the art of obtaining prey by their parents until such time as the flock migrates. These birds are easily tamed, and cannot fail to attract attention by their beauty and the affection with which they regard those who show them kindness.

THE SPARROW FALCON.

The Sparrow Falcon (Rhynchodon sparverius) is a well-known member of this group, inhabiting the entire continent of America. This species varies so remarkably in its plumage as to render description almost impossible; indeed, it would be difficult to find two specimens completely alike in their colours. Suffice it, therefore, to say that the feathers upon the back are usually reddish brown, striped with black; the outer web of the quills is black, the two exterior quills being bordered with white, and the rest spotted with white towards the root; the inner web is tipped with white and marked with conical black and white spots, which run one into the other. The eyes, cere, and feet are yellow, the beak is tipped with blackish blue, whilst the middle portion is whitish blue and the base yellow. This species measures about nine inches ten lines in length, and is about twenty inches broad; the wing measures six inches nine lines, and the tail about four inches. The female is an inch longer and two inches broader than her mate. Some naturalists consider that the species found in North and South America are different, but in this opinion we do not concur.

Our readers will form an accurate idea of the Sparrow Falcon if we describe it as a very powerful and courageous Kestrel, which subsists not merely upon insects or small quadrupeds, but will grapple with the largest of its own formidable race. Tschudi tells us that it pounces upon an adversary five times as large as itself, and despite all efforts to dislodge it, succeeds in overcoming its prey. Naturalists differ as to the situations preferred as breeding-places, some affirming that the eyrie is found in holes of trees, and that the brood consists of from five to seven eggs; whilst Tschudi, on the contrary, tells us that the nest is placed upon rocks or old buildings, and that not more than two or three eggs are laid; these are round, of a white or reddish yellow tint, and spotted with brownish red. At the approach of winter the greater number of these birds migrate to Brazil; some few stragglers, however, remain throughout the year in their native country.

The DWARF FALCONS (Hierax), the smallest members of the Falcon group are met with in Southern Asia; they do not exceed a Lark in size, but are as courageous and bold as the largest of their marauding fraternity; they are recognisable by their short powerful beak, the upper mandible of which is toothed, and furnished on each side with a projecting appendage; by their short wings, of which the second and third quills are longer than the rest; and by their very short tail, cut straight at its tip; the tarsi are short and strong, the middle toe slightly elongated, and the claws very powerful. These elegant little Falcons, which from their appearance have been compared to small Parrots, are inhabitants of India and the Moluccas, no less than six different species having been described as belonging to those parts.

THE MUTI.

The Muti (Hierax coerulescens) is about seven inches long; the wing measures three and a half inches, and the tail two inches and a quarter. The top of the head, nape, tail, and the long silky feathers that form the hose are of a blueish black; the face, part of the head, throat, breast, and a stripe which passes from the corner of the beak to the shoulder are reddish white; the belly is rust red; the tail is ornamented with round white spots, which form four delicate borders, and the wings are adorned in a similar manner. The eye is dark brown, the beak and feet blueish black. This species is found throughout the whole of Southern Asia, and is extensively employed by the inhabitants of the countries it frequents in the pursuit of quails and other birds of considerable size. When used for this purpose the falconer carries the Muti in the palm of his hand, and tosses it like a stone into the air towards its intended prey; it is from this circumstance that the species has received its Indian name, the word "Muti" signifying a handful. Nothing can exceed the boldness displayed by this small Falcon during the chase; it will attack birds much larger than itself with unflinching courage, rushing down upon them after the manner of a Hawk.