Most of this volume consists of the educational appendix which is continued from the preceding volume. The only regular document presented shows the general history of the islands for the years 1721–1739 both politically and religiously. The greater interest in the volume centers about the appendix. For here we see the first systematic attempts at a universal education in the Philippines, the first real though rude awakening of the inert mass of a people to the facts of broader life by the government establishment of primary and normal schools. As might be expected the paternal element is chiefly discernible in the laws and regulations made by the government. The complexities of the educational question, a problem that Spain would have been many years in solving, are well shown by the two documents which give the friar side of the matter.

A brief summary of the principal events from 1721 to 1739 contains several matters of interest. The murder of Bustamante by a mob arouses much indignation at Madrid, but the attempts to ascertain and punish the guilty ones prove ineffectual, and the affair drops into oblivion. The islands are regularly harassed by the Moro pirates; punitive expeditions are sent against them, but these are often too late or too slow to accomplish any results. The coast villages are fortified, much of this being done by the priests in charge of the Indians. In 1733 the royal storehouses at Manila are destroyed by fire, causing great loss to the treasury. Two years later, a Dutch fleet demands satisfaction for the previous capture of a Dutch ship by a Spanish coastguard, but retires when the Spaniards pay the value of the prize. A controversy arises (1736) between the Recollects and Jesuits over certain missions in northern Mindanao, in which the Jesuits gain the upper hand. In 1737, one of the auditors makes an official visitation of several provinces in LuzÓn, and reforms many abuses therein. During 1738–39, a controversy rages in Manila over the complaint made by the mestizos of Santa Cruz regarding unjust exactions imposed on them by the Jesuits; the decision of the Audiencia (sustained by the home government) is against that order.

The remainder of this volume is occupied by the educational appendix, which is the continuance and conclusion of the review of education begun in VOL. XLV. The first document, which comprises the greater part of the appendix, treats of primary and normal instruction in the Philippines, after the government really took such education under its protection by special legislation. The subject is prefaced by extracts and synopses from Barrantes which show the earliest legislation, beginning with 1839 and culminating in the decree of December 20, 1863. Although the appointment of a commission is ordered in the former year to draft regulations for schools, such appointment is delayed until 1855, and a report is handed in only in 1861, the work of the commission being stimulated perhaps by the fact that the governor appoints an official in 1860 to draft regulations along the same line. The chief point of debate in the commission is the teaching of Spanish, the vice-rector of the university of Santo TomÁs declaring against such teaching but being overruled. The decree of December 20, 1863 is the greatest result of the work of the commission. The normal school created by the decree is formally opened January 23, 1865, although in operation since May 17, 1864. Irregularity of attendance and vacations prove the greatest obstacles. Barrantes, who defends the friars, concludes that the backwardness of primary education is due rather to the laws of the Indies than to any class such as the religious corporations; that before 1865 primary education was only a shadow; and that the Filipinos have not yet sufficiently far advanced to be granted the electoral right that they ask. The remainder of the document is from Grifol y Aliaga’s book on primary instruction. An extract from the preface of that author shows that with the decree of 1863, new life is put into education, and that all the many decrees and orders issued later by the government are harmonious in effect and purpose; although they were in large part inoperative. Next follows the royal decree of December 20, 1863, establishing a plan of primary instruction in the islands. Its first part consists of the exposition addressed to the queen by the minister JosÉ de la Concha, stating the need of greater efficiency in the teaching system for the natives, in order that they may develop spiritually and intellectually. The aim is to diffuse the Spanish language. It provides for a normal school under the immediate supervision of the priests. Following the exposition is the decree proper, which decrees schools for each sex in each village, and gives various details of such schools. The regulations for the normal school of teachers for primary instruction end Aliaga’s book. They consist of twenty-eight articles which state the object of the school; and the rules governing the scholars in their manifold relations. Next come the regulations, dated December 20, 1863, for schools and teachers of primary instruction for native Filipinos, which consist of thirty-five articles. By these regulations, separate schools are established in all the villages for boys and girls; attendance is made compulsory for children between certain ages; instruction is to be in Spanish, and the knowledge of that language especially striven for; tuition is free to the poor, and equipment for all; religious and ethical teaching is in charge of the parish priests. Rules are given in regard to the teachers, and assistants, the textbooks, vacations, the establishment of Sunday schools for adults, and the supervision, which is put into the hands of laymen—that duty having thitherto been performed by the parish priests, in so far as it was performed at all. The interior regulations, consisting of fourteen articles, for native primary schools, follow, as the preceding, dated December 20, 1863. They include rules as to the size of buildings, equipment, duties of teachers, manner of keeping records, sending of monthly reports, pupils and conditions of their admittance, attendance, system of merits and demerits, examinations, etc. Religious exercises are found to fill a considerable portion of the day. A government decree of February 15, 1864, approving the regulations for a municipal girls’ school in Manila, is followed by those regulations of the same date, which consist of twenty-six articles. The school is to be in charge of the sisters of charity. Religious and ethical training is given great prominence. The courses of study, comprising the elementary branches, and needle-work, is outlined. There are both required and optional studies. Girls are admitted at the age of five, and admission is in charge of a member of the city ayuntamiento. Rules are given governing the daily and term routine of the school in its manifold relations. Examinations are both public and private. Supervision is in charge of three women appointed by the governor of the islands. This is followed by a circular of the superior civil government, dated August 30, 1867, discussing, and giving rules concerning, school supervision—an important document, showing well the Spanish love of philosophizing. Commenting on the importance of the supervisory function, the circular states the duties of supervisors, for on them “depends the development and conservation of the improvements which are being introduced.” Since the supervision is partly in the hands of the ecclesiastical government, the outcome can only be the best. A rather lengthy quotation is made from a book on supervision, in which the duties and qualifications of supervisors are outlined. Great stress is laid on temperateness of action. The most delicate power is the correction and suspension of teachers. Suspension must only be for ethical and religious lack, and neglect of duties. The parish priests in their duties as supervisors must see that the heads of families recognize their responsibility in regard to sending their children to school. Special privileges are to be given to those attending school and learning the Spanish language—in which all instruction is to be given. Primary instruction in the islands is in a backward state, because of the few buildings and teachers, and the want of uniformity among the children. Statistics of March 1, 1866 show the number of villages in provinces or districts, the population, school attendance, schools possible, and buildings. The government pledges its support of the efforts put forth by the parish priests and the provincial supervisors. The former are to hold annual examinations, and are to have the children review their work when they confess and take communion. The provincial supervision of the alcaldes is to be exercised with the aid of a board composed of the bishop, parish priest, and the administrator of the public finances. Reforms are needed in teaching and supervision, and the efforts of the parish priest must not be opposed. Boards not yet appointed must be appointed at once, and monthly reports submitted. The government decree of June 19, 1875, approving ad interim the regulations for the women’s normal school for primary teachers in Nueva CÁceres, is followed by the regulations. These number fifty-two articles in all. The object of the school is to train good moral and religious women teachers and to make this school a model for other schools. The practice school attached to it is an integral part of the public school system, wherein an education is given free to poor girls. Those attending the normal school may or may not be candidates for a teacher’s certificate. The program of studies shows elementary branches, and demands instruction in Spanish and includes needle-work. The course lasts three years, though an additional year may be allowed to graduates; and the schedule of studies is to be sent annually to the governor for his approval. The time spent in the practice school is not to exceed four months in each year. Teachers’ certificates are to be given to those completing the course, and such graduates are to be given schools of the proper grades, the method of marking being given. The school is organized under charge of the sisters of charity, and the school of Santa Isabel is to be used. The staff and their duties are enumerated, among whom it is to be noted is a secular priest to administer to the ethical and religious needs of the pupils. Pupils shall be both day and resident, the requirements for admission being stated. Women teachers may be admitted to the institution, if not over the age of twenty-three. Instruction is free, and provided for from the local funds. In proportion as the public schools are placed in charge of normal graduates, the number of resident pupils supported from the local funds is to be decreased to twenty-five, from whom vacancies are to be filled. Resident pupils supported by local funds are to teach ten years in the schools of Nueva CÁceres, under penalty of making restitution of their expenses if they do not carry out their contract. General public examinations are to be held at the end of the term, when rewards are to be distributed. Various other data regarding the running of the school in its different relations are given. The moral and religious supervision belongs to the bishop of Nueva CÁceres; secular supervision is in charge of the alcalde-mayor, the bishop, and the administrator of public finances, and one member of this board is to have immediate supervision for three months. A royal decree dated March 11, 1892 creates in Manila a normal school for women teachers under charge of Augustinian nuns. It is needed as is proved by that of Nueva CÁceres. The study of Spanish is compulsory. Expenses are to be met from the regular budget for the islands. Among other data included in this decree, it is to be noted that the certificate for elementary teaching is given for three years’ study and that for superior for four; and that a practice school, whose expenses are to be met by the municipality, is to be annexed to the normal school. This is followed by a royal order of May 19, 1892 approving the regulations for the above normal school, which is followed in turn by the regulations bearing the same date, and consisting of one hundred and fifty-four articles. This is a document of considerable interest, for it goes into much detail concerning the school in its relations to government, teachers, pupils, and public. It is divided into various sections designated as tÍtulos, which are in turn divided into chapters. TÍtulo i states in the first chapter the object of the school, and the subjects taught, which are both required and optional. The expense of equipment is to be approved by the general government. Chapter ii relates to the teaching force, and enumerates their duties and names salaries. The total expenses are to be seven thousand nine hundred pesos annually. Chapter iii gives in detail the duties of the directress, which are mainly executive; and those of the instructresses. Chapters iv to vii treat of the duties of the secretary, the librarian, the assistants, and the necessary help. Chapter viii deals with the board of instructresses, which is composed of the regular teachers, and outlines its functions. Chapter ix treats of the disciplinary council, which must consist of five members at least, and is convoked by the directress. TÍtulo ii deals with the economic management—chapter i treating of the annual budget, and chapter ii of the collection, distribution, and payment of accounts. TÍtulo iii has as its main subject the teaching: of which chapter i deals with the opening of the school, and the term in general; chapter ii, of the order of classes and methods of teaching, etc.; and chapter iii, with the material equipment for teaching. TÍtulo iv discusses the scholars: chapter i, treating of their necessary qualifications, entrance examinations, payment of entrance fees, and age of entrance; chapter ii, concerning matriculation, in which there is much red tape; chapter iii, of the obligations of the pupils, mainly in deportment; chapter iv, of examinations—an important subject—which are divided into ordinary and extraordinary, according to the time taken, and are oral, written, and practical; chapter v, of rewards; chapter vi, of certificates and decisions, and conditions under which they are given; and chapter vii, of discipline and punishments. TÍtulo v, which is, like all this document, laden with red tape, outlines the conditions of the examination for degrees. The practice school annexed to the normal school has its expenses met by the municipality, and is a public school. For the present the normal school shall have only day pupils, but if necessary later, they may enrol resident pupils. The nuns in charge of the school have liberty to follow the institutes of their order. This document is followed by a governmental decree of November 1, 1893, elevating to the grade of superior the normal school for men teachers in Manila, and approving provisionally the new regulations of this school. This exposition by the reverend father director shows that this school, created as an elementary normal school by the decree of December 20, 1863, has been fulfilling its function since its creation, and has made progress in the process of better understanding between the Filipinos and Spanish authorities, has diffused the Spanish language wider than ever, and encouraged the arts and industries. It has had a difficult path, because of the condition of its students who are far from homogeneous in preparation and ability. It has been necessary to lessen the age limit at which men may enter, because, as the average Filipino leaves school at the age of twelve, he readily forgets what he has learned, and consequently when he enters at the age of sixteen into the normal school, he has to take a year in special preparation. The proposal to elevate the school to the rank of superior can be done without any extra expense, as it will be in charge of the same force as at present. The Manila normal school compares with the best in Spain. A petition by one A. AvilÉs, asking for the extension, and the decree proper, both dated November 10, 1893 follow. Certificates from this school are to have the same value and rights as certificates granted in Spain. The regulations for the extension above-mentioned dated also November 10, 1893, follow. They consist of thirty articles, a number of which are similar or analogous to those of the regulations of December 20, 1863, establishing the elementary school. These regulations discuss the manifold relations of the school in regard to pupils, teachers, supplies, examinations, etc. The selections from Grifol y Aliaga are closed by a list of all the decrees, circulars, orders, etc., in regard to primary and normal education in the Philippines from December 20, 1863 to July 20, 1894—in all one hundred and seventy-one. This is of distinct value, as the course of legislation can be followed easily, and one may note the new ideas that leaders were attempting to work out in this period of Spanish unrest.

A series of short documents regarding the religious schools follows. The first is a summary of the Dominican institutions for 1896–1897. The university of Santo TomÁs has a total enrolment in all courses of 3,059, and a total of 36 degrees are conferred. The college of San Juan de Letran has a total enrolment of 5,995, which includes professors, collegiates, day pupils, and servants; and has conferred in all 177 degrees. The college of San Alberto Magno in Dagupan, has an enrolment of 947, counting teachers. The school of Santa Catalina de SenÁ shows an enrolment of 223, including the teachers, who are nuns. A total enrolment of 83 is seen in the school of Nuestra SeÑora del Rosario of LingayÉn; while the school of the same name in Vigan has 79. The school of Santa Ymelda founded in 1892, completes the list, with an enrolment of 110. A report for the religious schools for 1897 gives various statistics of the following institutions: La Concordia, Santa Isabel, Santa Rosa, and Looban, the military hospital, the hospital of St. John of God, the municipal school [of secular foundation], and the hospice of San JosÉ, all in charge of the sisters of charity in Manila; and certain of the provincial schools. The third document in this series gives an account of the educational institutions of the Recollects, probably for the year 1897. These are the beaterio of Santa Rita in San Sebastian, in the suburbs of Manila; school of San JosÉ of Bacolod, Negros, opened in 1897, and under the auspices of the university of Santo TomÁs; the seminary school of Vigan, of which the Recollects had charge during the years 1882–1895; school of Santa Rosa, of which the Recollects were in charge in 1891.

The friar side of the educational question of the Philippines is well set forth in two selections. The first is a chapter by Eduardo Navarro, O.S.A., who spent many years in the islands, and who is, perhaps, one of the best representative men of his order, and moreover, of scholarly tastes. He introduces his subject in a somewhat philosophical manner. Education and religion he declares to be synonymous terms when taken in their real signification. It is the duty of the government to choose the best educational method. The earliest laws passed by the Spanish government in regard to the education of the American Indians are extended later to the Philippines, but they prove most unsatisfactory and unsuited to the conditions of those islands. They provide for the teaching of Spanish to the aborigines, but in an inadequate manner. The theme of the present chapter is to prove that the friars are not responsible for the backward state of education in the islands. On the other hand they early pass laws that are more advanced than those passed by the government. Their laws have always been consistent and have had but one aim. They have not endeavored to retard the learning of Spanish, but they rather favored it. They have done their best with the useless laws of the government. They have founded and taught schools, paid the teachers, and have made the textbooks, notwithstanding their immense toil. They have also introduced many of the arts and crafts. The friars have gone farther than the laws for they provided for girls’ schools before the famous decree of 1863. The passage of those regulations has robbed the parish priest unjustly of much of his supervisory power, which has been conferred except in so far as morality and religion are concerned, on the civil authorities. It belongs by right to the friars, who only use that power as it should be used. The parish priest knows the people thoroughly, and as no laymen do. The Filipino cannot be identified with the Spaniards notwithstanding all efforts of the Spanish government. Navarro enforces his arguments by quotations from Escosura, whom he criticises harshly for his expressions. While modern ideas from abroad have made better sea communication, internal communication has become worse. Good roads are especially needed and the small barrios ought to be merged together whenever possible. That the friars do not oppose education is shown by the many schools that they maintain in Manila and the provinces. They should be allowed to establish normal schools under their own direction. The parish priest can best overcome the evil introduced by the free masons. The studies chosen for the Filipinos must be fitted to their capacity. Our author suggests the personnel of the Superior Board of Public Instruction, in which he places a majority of ecclesiastics, and this Board should revise the school laws. The majority of the Filipino students return to their homes with plenty of vices but little learning, although looked up to greatly by their fellow townsmen. This horde brings disaster and ruin upon the people. The rector of the university should have more power over the life and morals of the students, for only thus can the Filipino students become really useful to Spain.

The second selection is a chapter written by Fr. Eladio Zamora, also an Augustinian. Almost the last friar writer on the matter, since he writes after American occupation, his remarks may be assumed to be the present friar attitude. He begins with a quotation from the preface of Grifol y Aliaga to the effect that until 1863 there had been no real legislation concerning education, for the many decrees, etc., were isolated. It is rather the friars, says Zamora, who are the first educators, teaching themselves or paying teachers from their own funds. After 1863, the friars continue to encourage education as supervisors. They build schools, and visit the distant barrios whenever possible. On Sundays it is their custom to inspect the copybooks, etc. The distance of barrios and villages from one another makes teaching difficult. Many of the priests become suspected as having a bad influence, for many criminals resort to the barrios. The government orders the fusion of barrios into villages, but the order is not obeyed. In 1863, the government takes control of the schools founded by the friars. Under the new regime, so long as the parish priest has supervisory action, the schools flourish, but when that action ceases, so does progress in the schools, and attendance becomes only nominal and a record on paper. The intention of the government to have all teaching in Spanish fails of its purpose, for the scholars can not understand it. The famous Maura decree of 1893 gives the local supervision to local municipalities, a law that soon gives rise to serious trouble. Many unjustly blame the parish priest for the ignorance of Spanish, but he has no time to teach Spanish amid the multiplicity of his duties. Besides, it is easier for the few Spaniards to learn the languages of the natives than for the Filipinos to learn Spanish. The friars have not shunned the teaching of Spanish, as is proved by a citation from ZÚÑiga. If the TagÁlog actors are allowed to use their native language in the theater, because they do not know Spanish, is it consistent to demand that all sermons and teaching be in Spanish? In spite of the early laws requiring Spanish to be taught to the Filipinos, it is impossible for Spanish to supplant all the numerous dialects. Zamora reproduces portions of an open letter by W. E. Retana to Minister Becerra, in which Retana decries the intellect of the Filipino, and declares that it is absurd to think of teaching him in Spanish, but that the best way of teaching it would be to settle 500,000 Spanish families in the islands. Zamora gives a rÉsumÉ of the history of the university of Santo TomÁs and the college of San Juan de Letran. The religious corporations have kept abreast of the times in the manner in which they have fostered education from the earliest period, and many schools are due to them, some being founded by the tertiary order of the Dominicans. Zamora criticises the capacity of the Filipinos, asserting that they are teachable and quick in imitation, although they never attain excellence in anything, but that they are utterly devoid of originality. They have greater capacity than the American Indian, and make fine clerks and the like, but they are lazy, and do not strive to rise beyond a certain point. They learn vices but not virtues. The Augustinians are the last of the religious orders to take up superior education, by establishing an institute at Iloilo, because a secular institution was planned for that place by Minister Becerra in 1887–1888. Zamora emphasizes the importance of arts and crafts for the Filipinos.

The appendix to our volume is brought to a close with a very brief statement in regard to American education in the Philippines since 1898. A bibliographical list of works treating of education will enable the student to follow the course of American work. The statement is concluded by the abstract of a philosophical address by Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera before the American and Filipino teachers in Manila in May 1906, in which he points out the beneficent results of Anglo-Saxon teaching.

The Editors

November, 1906.