Maxillary, palatine, and pterygoid bones movable; transverse bone present; pterygoid extending to quadrate or mandible; supratemporal present, attached scale-like to cranium, suspending quadrate; prefrontal not in contact with nasal; maxillary horizontal, not movable perpendicularly to the transverse bone; no coronoid bone. Teeth in both jaws. No vestiges of pelvic arch.

An enormous group, comprising the great majority of snakes. Divided into three parallel series:

A. Aglypha, with all the teeth solid.

B. Opisthoglypha, with one or more of the posterior maxillary teeth grooved.

C. Proteroglypha, with the anterior maxillary teeth grooved or canaliculated.

The third, which is not represented in Europe, includes some of the most deadly snakes, such as the Cobras, Kraits, Death-adders, etc.

The European genera are thus distributed in the two other series:

Aglypha (ColubrinÆ): Tropidonotus, Zamenis, Coluber, Coronella, Contia.

Opisthoglypha (DipsadomorphinÆ): Coelopeltis, Macroprotodon, Tarbophis.

These genera give but a feeble idea of the variety of forms included in this family, which comprises adaptations to every mode of life for which snakes are fitted.

The distribution of the family coincides with that of the order, extending over the whole world with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and Ireland and New Zealand, as well as most of the smaller islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly. Head more or less distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with round pupil. Body more or less elongate; scales keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate.

This large genus, comprising about ninety species, and of almost cosmopolitan distribution, with the exception of South America and the greater part of Australia, may be divided into several subgenera, two of which are represented in Europe—Tropidonotus proper, with the common T. natrix, and Nerodia, Baird and Girard, with two closely related species of more thoroughly aquatic habits, T. tessellatus and T. viperinus.

Form.—Moderately slender; snout short, obtuse, not prominent; eyes and nostrils lateral, the former moderately large. Tail four to six and a half times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal divided, very rarely semidivided. Internasals at least as broad as long, trapezoid, shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal broader than the supraocular, once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, not in contact with the preocular. Loreal deeper than long. One (rarely two) pre- and three (rarely two or four) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials seven (rarely six or eight), third and fourth (or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

Scales with two apical pits, in nineteen rows, strongly keeled on the body, of outer row smooth or faintly keeled. Ventral shields 157 to 181; anal divided; subcaudals 50 to 88.

Coloration.—Very variable. We shall first describe the typical form, and then allude to the principal varieties and individual variations with which we are acquainted.

Grey, bluish-grey, olive, or brown, above, usually with black spots or narrow bars on the back, and vertical bars on the sides; upper lip whitish or yellowish, with the sutures between the shields black; the preocular, and sometimes the postoculars, yellow in the young; a white, yellow, or orange collar on the nape, sometimes uninterrupted, more often divided in the middle, bordered behind by two black subtriangular or crescentic blotches, which usually meet on the median line; the bright collar often becomes faint, or even entirely disappears, in large females (Plate II., first figure); belly usually checkered black and grey or white, more rarely grey with small black spots, or entirely black. Iris dark brown or reddish-brown, with a golden circle round the pupil. This is the form found in England and Central Europe and in some parts of Southern Europe.

In Jersey, in the Spanish Peninsula, and in Cyprus, the white or yellow collar, which is always present in the very young, soon disappears, and so does usually the black collar, which is either much reduced or entirely absent (var. astreptophorus, Seoane). Some large specimens from the Spanish Peninsula are uniform olive, without any markings.

Another variation (Plate II., third figure), rare in France, but common in Italy, South-Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor (var. persa, Pallas; bilineatus, Bibr.; murorum, Bonap.) has the collar well marked, though widely interrupted in the middle, and a white, yellow, or orange streak extends along each side of the back, which may bear the usual black markings in addition.

In some specimens from Austria and Corfu (var. subfasciatus, Werner) the belly is white, with black bars occupying the free edge of each ventral shield.

A very remarkable variety (var. cettii, GenÉ) from Corsica and Sardinia (Plate II., second figure) is grey or olive above, with the black markings confluent into more or less regular annuli, which are nearly as wide as the spaces between them; these annuli are often broken up on the middle line of the back, and alternating; the collar is absent, or is transformed into the first annulus, and the upper surface of the head is more or less spotted or blotched with black. This pattern is most distinct in young and half-grown specimens; in large examples the annuli may break up into spots, disposed with great symmetry in transverse series. The belly is black, spotted with white.

A specimen 20 inches long, from Bona, Algeria (Lataste collection), has the posterior half of the head, from between the eyes and behind the postocular shields, of an intense black, followed by the usual yellow and black collar; two light dots close together on the parietal shields.

Some specimens are entirely or nearly entirely black. In the var. picturatus, Jan, from the Caucasus, the upper parts are sprinkled all over with light dots, and the yellow collar is present; the belly is grey, dotted with black, and with white spots on the sides. In others the body is black above, and checkered black and white beneath (var. scutatus, Pall.), or entirely black (var. ater, Eichw.). This melanism never appears until the second or third year of life, the young being marked like the typical form.

Albinos have occasionally been met with, yellowish flesh-colour with reddish markings, and a white or yellow collar, the eye and the tongue red. Such an albino, from Horsted Keynes, Sussex, is preserved in the British Museum. A remarkable aberration, to be regarded as an imperfect albino, has been found in Dorsetshire, and described as uniform whitish, with a well-defined broad longitudinal central dorsal pale yellow-brown band.

Size.—May reach a length of 6 feet 8 inches. Such giants, females, known from Sardinia, Sicily, and Istria, are, however, very exceptional, individuals of this species seldom exceeding a length of 4 feet. The largest British specimen on record, from Wales, is stated to measure 5 feet 10 inches. Males rarely exceed 3 feet.

Monstrosity.—A dicephalous young, with the two well-formed heads side by side, is preserved in the British Museum, and several others have been described, one being reported to have lived for about a month.

Distribution.—Tropidonotus natrix occurs all over Europe, with, of course, the exception of Ireland, as far north as the extreme south-east of Scotland, and the sixty-fifth degree in Scandinavia and Finland, and as high up as 7,450 feet in the Italian Alps. With the exception of a few districts in England and in Central Europe, as well as in the extreme north, it is common everywhere, in the north as well as in the south. On the Mediterranean islands it is absent from the Baleares and Malta. In North Africa it is known from Algeria and Tunisia, north of the Atlas, where it does not seem, however, to be at all common. It has a wide range in Asia, extending eastwards to Lake Baikal, and southwards to Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Northern Persia. In the south-east of its range, the bilineated variety predominates over the typical form. The melanistic so-called varieties are not geographically restricted, but occur all over the habitat of the species, though not recorded from England.

Habits.—Although fond of water, and often seen swimming in ponds or streams or creeping by the water’s edge, this snake is far less aquatic than its two congeners described hereafter; it often occurs on dry chalk hills or in woods far from any water. It is moderately agile in its movements, and easily caught, on which occasions it hisses loudly and emits a nauseous smell from its anal glands, together with the renal dejections, but makes no attempt to bite; exceptionally an individual may go so far as to strike with open mouth, but cases of this snake really biting are extremely rare. However, GenÉ says of the male of his Natrix cettii, “iracundum et mordacissimum animal.” Dr. Gadow relates his experience with aggressive specimens which inhabited a swamp with a little stream to the north of Oporto, close to the coast. To his utter surprise, some of them actually made for him, swimming along rapidly with the head erect, about 6 inches above the water, and darting forwards with widely opened jaws; but they did not bite. According to Professor Kathariner, this snake when caught has been observed to sham death, lying rigid and motionless, with open gape. Some specimens do well in captivity, and are known to have lived for many years; others refuse all food and die of starvation. After a time they become tolerably tame, and cease to produce the offensive odour when handled.

The food consists of frogs and toads—the latter being preferred notwithstanding their poisonous secretion, which protects them from the attacks of most animals—occasionally of newts, seldom of fish; these snakes are reported to have a predilection for tree-frogs, and to feed occasionally on mice and birds, but most observers agree that they will not take anything higher in the zoological scale than frogs. The prey is swallowed alive, and, if not very large, four or five frogs or toads are often taken in succession; a case is known of a snake having swallowed twenty very small frogs at one meal. The young feed on worms and batrachian larvÆ, in addition to very small frogs and toads.

The Grass-snake gets on very well with the Adder, to whose venom it is immune.

It has more than once been met with swimming in the sea, and a case is reported of one having been captured in the open sea twenty-five miles from the nearest land, no doubt carried away by the current, but still perfectly lively.

The hibernating season is spent in holes in walls or at the root of trees, often under manure-heaps, and the awakening occurs in March or April, soon to be followed by the first exuviation and the pairing.

Reproduction.—Pairing takes place in April or in May, according to the climate, and the eggs are laid between June and August, the young emerging six to ten weeks later. It is probable that a second pairing occasionally takes place in the autumn, as eggs have sometimes been found in manure-heaps at the end of winter. Females do not breed until about 2 feet long, males a little sooner. The eggs number 11 to 48, according to the size of the female, and, after being produced in a string, stick together in a mass, without any regularity.

The eggs measure 1 to 11/2 inches in length, and when newly laid are about once and a half as long as broad. They often contain at the time they are produced a more or less developed embryo. They are sometimes laid in recesses in walls, in heaps of sawdust near sawmills, under dead leaves, but preferably in manure, for which purpose females often approach farms during the period of oviposition. Holes near baking ovens at the back of village houses are sometimes selected as breeding resorts. The female rolls herself up, and by violent contortions makes a sort of chamber in the manure, in which she may remain for some days after the eggs have been produced. It is not very unusual for several females to congregate for the purpose of laying, and as many as 1,200 eggs have been found in the same hole. The young on emerging has lost the umbilical cord, and measures 6 to 81/2 inches. It often remains for a considerable time, sometimes until the following spring, in the hole or manure-heap in which it was born, feeding principally on worms. Very young specimens are never found in the water.

Form.—Rather slender; head rather long and narrow; snout obtuse, not prominent; eyes and nostrils directed upwards and outwards, the former rather small, the latter somewhat valvular. Tail four to six times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal often semidivided. Internasals usually as long as broad or longer, subtriangular, truncate in front, as long or nearly as long as the prefrontals. Frontal a little broader than the supraocular, once and a half to twice as long as broad, as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, not in contact with the preocular. Loreal as deep as or deeper than long. Two (rarely one or three) preoculars, with or without a small subocular below; three postoculars, often with one or two suboculars below. Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials eight (rarely seven, nine, or ten), fourth or fourth and fifth (rarely third or fifth) entering the eye. Five (rarely four) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

Scales with two apical pits, in nineteen rows, strongly keeled, of outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventrals 160 to 187; anal divided; subcaudals 48 to 79.

Coloration.—Olive, olive-grey, or brown above, with dark spots usually arranged quincuncially or forming narrow bars on the back (Plate III.); sides often with lighter vertical bars; a more or less distinct ?-shaped dark band on the nape, sometimes produced as a median streak to the frontal shield; upper lip yellowish, with dark bars on the sutures between the shields. Lower parts whitish, yellow, orange, or red, marbled or checkered with black, or nearly entirely black. Iris golden, bronzy, or coppery red.

Some specimens depart very strikingly from the coloration thus briefly defined. We will now mention the principal variations which have been described: Sides of body checkered with black and yellow or black and red (var. rubro-maculosus, DÜrigen). With four dark stripes along the anterior part of the back (var. lineaticollis, Werner). Above with four light streaks in addition to the dark markings. Uniform grey or light brown above (var. concolor, Jan, hagenbecki, Werner). Uniform black or blackish (var. nigrescens, De Betta). The most remarkable variety is the var. vosseleri, Werner, from Asia Minor: above with small black and yellowish spots, beneath yellowish with three blackish stripes beginning at some distance from the head, the median much weaker than the outer; the scales are less strongly keeled than in the typical form. There are also specimens with two very regular black stripes along the belly.

A case of chlorochroism, in a specimen from Dalmatia, has been observed by Peracca. The snake was sulphur yellow with black markings; a black band along the belly; iris golden.

An imperfect albino, which has been met with several times in Dalmatia, has been described as var. flavescens, Werner. Yellowish-white or brownish-yellow above, with small blackish spots; belly whitish in the middle, with a series of black spots, bright yellow on the sides; eye and tongue red.

Size.—This snake occasionally reaches a length of 4 feet, but specimens over 3 feet are rare. The largest specimen in the British Museum measures 3 feet 10 inches.

Distribution.—The Tessellated Snake has a wide range in Europe and Asia. It is found south of the Alps, from Liguria to Naples, and eastwards, extending northwards over the greater part of Austria-Hungary, and even as far as Saxony, and again reappears to the west in various localities of the Middle Rhine district (from Bingen to Coblenz and Kreuznach, from Nassau to Lahnstein) and of the Moselle. From Southern Russia it extends into Siberia as far as the Altai, the extreme west of China, and the extreme north-west of India; it is also found in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and the neighbouring parts of Egypt. Italy and the Rhine constitute the western limit of its range in Europe. It does not ascend to any considerable altitude in the mountains of Europe, but it is on record from 6,000 feet elevation in Chitral.

Habits.—This is a far more aquatic species than the preceding, being seldom found in summer away from the water, in which it swims and dives to perfection; which does not prevent it from being equally agile on land. In accordance with these thoroughly aquatic habits, it feeds mostly on fish, although occasionally taking frogs and toads and their tadpoles. Small fish are swallowed in the water, but large ones are landed. This snake does not object to salt water, and it has been observed on the seashore near Odessa, chasing small fish, mostly gobies, in shallow water. Hibernation and pairing take place on land, and it is not until the latter function is accomplished that the snakes of this species resort to the water, which the females leave again for oviposition. Like the Grass-snake, the Tessellated Snake seldom bites.

Reproduction.—Pairing takes place in spring, when large numbers have been observed to congregate for the purpose. As in the Viperine Snake, a second pairing may occur in the autumn, Dr. Werner having found a pair in copula on September 14, at Trebinje, Herzegovina, the female laying her eggs in the following July, which with the beginning of August is the time for oviposition. The eggs measure a little over an inch in length and two-thirds of an inch in width, and number 5 to 25; they are deposited under stones, in the fissures of walls and rocks, or under the refuse of tanneries.

Form.—Moderately slender; head shorter than in the preceding species; snout obtuse, not prominent; eyes and nostrils directed upwards and outwards, the former rather small, the latter somewhat valvular; tail four to six times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal usually semi-divided. Internasals as long as broad or longer, subtriangular, truncate in front, as long as the prefrontals. Frontal usually broader than the supraocular, once and a half to twice as long as broad, as long as or slightly longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, not in contact with the preocular. Loreal as deep as or a little deeper than long. One or two preoculars and two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2 or 1 + 3. Upper labials seven (rarely eight), third and fourth (or third, fourth, or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four (rarely five) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are usually shorter than the posterior.

Scales with two apical pits, in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or twenty-three) rows, strongly keeled, of outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventrals 147 to 164; anal divided; subcaudals 46 to 72.

Coloration.—Grey, brown, or reddish above with two alternating series of dark brown or black spots on the back, or with a black zigzag dorsal band (Plate III., second figure), rarely with a single series of black vertebral spots; a lateral series of black spots, usually ocellar, with yellow centres; upper surface of head with dark symmetrical markings; a more or less distinct dark band on the temple, and another on each side of the nape, often edged with yellow in front; upper lip yellow, with dark bars on the sutures between the shields, or dark with a yellow spot on each shield. Lower parts yellow or red, checkered with black, or entirely black; the black of the belly may be connected with the ocellar lateral spots by black vertical bars. Iris golden, often mixed with brown.

A specimen from Ponte Carrega, near Genoa, preserved in the Genoa Museum, is remarkable as being of a dark olive-grey, with three series of black and yellow ocellar spots. It is further exceptional in having the scales in nineteen rows. A second specimen, from the same locality, with the normal number of scales, has some of the vertebral spots ocellar. Specimens with ocellar vertebral spots are found also in Sardinia and in Spain.

As in T. natrix, there occur, in the South of France, in Sardinia, in the Spanish Peninsula, and in North Africa, specimens with two light yellow or reddish lines along the back (Plate III., third figure), in addition to the usual markings (C. aurolineatus, Gervais, T. chersoides, DumÉril and Bibron).

Melanism is rare in this species, only one specimen being known, from Nantes in Southern Brittany; uniform black, with the exception of a few white spots on the belly. A remarkable variety (var. incertus, Fatio), connecting this species with the preceding, occurs in Switzerland near Geneva. Not only is its coloration sometimes very similar to that of T. tessellatus, but it agrees with it in the scales being often disposed in nineteen rows instead of twenty-one, and in the presence of eight upper labials, fourth or third and fourth entering the eye; however, the frequent presence of ocellar spots on the sides, and the low number of ventral shields (147 to 151), show that it should be referred to T. viperinus.

Size.—Rarely reaches a length of 3 feet in Europe, the largest specimens being from Sardinia. An Algerian specimen 3 feet 3 inches long is on record.

Distribution.—France as far north as Southern Brittany, the Forest of Fontainebleau, and the Department Aube, the whole of the Spanish Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, Southern Switzerland, north and south of the Alps, Liguria, Piedmont, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. In Africa in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, penetrating into the northern parts of the Sahara.

In Liguria, Piedmont, and Ticino, T. viperinus occurs alongside with T. tessellatus. It reaches an altitude of nearly 4,000 feet in the Alps.

Habits.—Very much the same as in the preceding species, although slightly less thoroughly aquatic, large individuals being sometimes met with at some distance from water. Ponds and marshes are the favourite abode of the Viperine Snake, huge numbers being often found on the borders, diving into the water when disturbed. Frogs and toads, tadpoles, newts, fishes, and large earthworms, are its principal food when adult, the young feeding chiefly on batrachian larvÆ, young fishes, and earthworms. A case is known of this snake having eaten a water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens). When a fish has been caught, it is usually eaten on land; in captivity dead fish are rather readily accepted, provided they be quite fresh. Some specimens bite when handled; others are as gentle as the Grass-snake.

For hibernation, hollow trees, fissures in rocks, holes in the ground or in railway embankments, are selected, and numerous individuals sometimes congregate in the same retreat. In the mild winters of the South of Europe they remain quiet, without being torpid, and resume activity very early in the spring.

In the Alemtejo, according to Gadow, when during the rainless and hot summer the small rivers have nearly dried up, these snakes collect in great quantities in the remaining stagnant and muddy pools, and, as the stock of suitable fish gets exhausted, are often reduced to a deplorably emaciated condition. By the month of August they have become so thoroughly aquatic that they cannot be kept alive in dry surroundings for twenty-four hours, apparently dying from some kind of cutaneous suffocation. The same observer once caught a Viperine Snake in a ditch whilst it was swallowing an eel of nearly its own length.

Some specimens show so great a superficial resemblance to the Common Adder, Vipera berus, which, however, being a more northern reptile, very seldom occurs in the same localities—that this snake well deserves its name Viperinus. A celebrated herpetologist, Constant DumÉril, was once himself deceived by this resemblance and bitten by a Vipera berus which he had picked up in the Forest of Senart, near Paris, believing it to be a Tropidonotus viperinus; whilst, conversely, a specimen of the harmless snake was killed in mistake for a Viper by no less an expert than Dr. Viaud-Grandmarais.

Breeding.—This snake pairs in March and April, and sometimes again in the autumn; but the eggs are only laid at one season, in June or July, and hatch in August, September, or October. The eggs, numbering four to twenty, are deposited in holes not far from water, often in abandoned galleries of voles or moles. The young at birth measure 4 to 61/2 inches, and soon resort to the water, where, unlike those of the Grass-snake, they are frequently met with.

Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly, the two last often separated from the others by a narrow interspace. Head elongate, distinct from neck; eye rather large, with round pupil. One or more subocular shields. Body much elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail long.

The species of this genus, about thirty in number, are distributed over Europe, North Africa, Asia, and North and Central America. Three inhabit Europe.

Form.—Slender; snout rounded, with distinct canthus, moderately prominent, concave on each side in front of the eye. Tail three and one-third to four and one-third times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral a little broader than deep, the portion visible from above measuring one-fourth to two-fifths its distance from the frontal. Frontal more or less bell-shaped, not or but little broader than the supraocular, once and two-thirds to twice as long as broad, as long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout, a little shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep or longer. One preocular (rarely two), extending to the upper surface of the head, but never in contact with the frontal; a small subocular below the preocular; two postoculars (rarely three). Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials eight, fourth and fifth entering the eye, fifth and seventh deepest. Five lower labials (rarely four) in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are usually shorter than the posterior.

Scales with two apical pits, in nineteen (rarely seventeen or twenty-one) rows. Ventral shields more or less distinctly angulate laterally, 160 to 230 (usually under 200 in the typical form and the var. caspius, 190 or more in the vars. viridiflavus and asianus); anal divided; subcaudals 87 to 131.

Coloration.—In the typical Z. gemonensis the upper parts are yellowish-brown or pale olive, anteriorly with blackish cross-bars or numerous small black spots, the black scales with a yellowish shaft, the lower parts yellowish-white or pale yellow, rarely more orange; the sides of the head are yellow, the shields edged with blackish. A female, 31/4 feet long, from Levico, Trentino, preserved in the Genoa Museum, is uniform reddish-brown above, with mere traces of darker markings on the head and nape. There is every gradation between this form and the var. viridiflavus or atrovirens (Plate IV., third figure), which is dark green or black above, with yellow spots forming transverse series or bars on the anterior part of the body, and longitudinal streaks, following the series of scales, on the posterior part and on the tail; the yellow sometimes predominates over the black, or may appear as a shaft along each dark scale; the preocular and postocular shields are yellow, the labials likewise yellow, with black spots or bars. The lower parts are yellow or greenish-white, with or without black dots, and usually with a series of large black spots on each side.

Some specimens of both the typical form and the var. viridiflavus are entirely black or nearly black. (Z. carbonarius, Bonaparte; Z. sardus, Suckow). In some localities and islands only black specimens occur.

In the var. caspius, Iwan (trabalis, Pallas, Plate V., first figure; persicus, Jan, Plate IV., second figure), from Hungary, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Corfu, Bulgaria, Roumania, Greece, Turkey, Southern Russia, Northern Asia Minor, and North-West Persia, the upper parts are pale olive or reddish-brown, with or without brown or black spots, and each scale bears a yellowish or pale brown longitudinal streak; there is often a dark longitudinal streak on the nape; the belly is uniform orange or red.

Another variety, var. asianus, Boettger, from Asia Minor, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Syria, has the upper parts brown or olive, each scale with a longitudinal light streak, and there are usually large black spots relieved by yellowish shafts; the belly is red, spotted or dotted with black. Melanism is frequent in this form, such specimens being entirely black except on the chin and throat, which are yellow variegated with red.

The very young of the typical form, as well as that of the var. viridiflavus, has a striking livery (Plate IV., first figure), the head and nape black with yellow markings, or olive with black-edged yellow markings, contrasting sharply with the pale olive-grey of the body; the most conspicuous and constant of the yellow markings consist of a bar between the eyes, interrupted on the frontal shield, but sometimes continuous with the yellow of the postoculars, five or six small round spots on the parietal shields, and a V- or W-shaped line just behind the parietals, followed by one or two others separating the dark cross-bars which may be present on the nape, and occasionally even continue some way down the anterior part of the body. This livery persists in some half-grown specimens.

In young individuals from Syria (var. asianus) the head is not differently coloured from the olive-brown body, and the markings described above appear as mere traces; on the other hand, the whole body has black and yellow spots or cross-bars above, and the belly is profusely marked with round black spots.

In the new-born of the var. caspius, of which I have examined only one specimen, 11 inches long, from the Crimea, the head is olive-brown like the body, which bears dark brown spots and narrow cross-bars; and there is a dark brown streak along the middle of the nape, as is sometimes the case in the typical form. The belly is unspotted. A young from Malta is intermediate in its markings between the typical form and this variety.

The young of the so-called black variety are not black at birth, but similar to the normal young of the races to which they belong.

The four principal forms—viridiflavus, gemonensis, caspius, and asianus—are so completely connected that I cannot regard them as more than geographical races or varieties.

Size.—This handsome snake grows to a length of 6 feet, the var. caspius even to 8 feet. I have seen a specimen of this variety, from Salonica, which measures 72/3 feet.

Distribution.—From the Atlantic coast of Europe to South-Western Asia. The typical form, in its narrowest sense, inhabits the Southern Tyrol, the north-eastern corner of Italy, and the countries to the east of the Adriatic, as far as Greece and Crete. The specimens from France, Switzerland, Italy, Giglio, Montecristo, Elba, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta, are mostly referable to the form known as Z. viridiflavus. Farther to the east the species is represented by the vars. caspius and asianus, of which the distribution has been mentioned above. From Spain, this snake is only on record from Catalonia, not far from the French frontier.

Rare or local in the north of its range (Maine-et-Loire, Vienne, Indre, Sarthe, Haute-SaÔne, Yonne, Aube, in France, Switzerland north of the Alps), it is one of the commonest snakes in Italy and on the borders and islands of the Adriatic, as well as on practically all the islands of the Mediterranean east of the Baleares. The highest altitudes at which it has been met with are 3,900 feet in the Alps, 4,500 feet in the Balkan Peninsula.

Habits.—The name “Whip-snake,” under which an American representative of this genus (Z. flagelliformis) is known, like that of “Fouet” and “Loucinglant,” which have been bestowed on it in some parts of France, expresses the quick movements with which, when captured, this snake lashes its long, slender tail, at the same time furiously biting the hand that has seized it. The generic term Zamenis, of Greek derivation, alludes to its viciousness, which also accounts for its German name, “Zornnatter.” This snake, occurring in Malta, may well have been the “Viper” which fastened on the hand of St. Paul. Some specimens have been kept for months in captivity without losing their savage temper, hissing and flying with open mouth at anyone approaching the glass walls of their prison; others, on the other hand, become quite tame in a very short time, such as one which I kept for nearly two years. Except when sunning itself on a cold early morning in the spring, this snake is always on the alert, and difficult to capture, uncoiling itself and darting away like an arrow at the least disturbance. It lives in preference among shrubs or on the edges of woods, avoiding damp localities, and females at least appear to have sedentary tastes. Lataste tells us of one, near Bordeaux, which he repeatedly met for over two years within 20 yards of the same spot, a bush between a wood and a meadow, without ever being able to capture it.

The food of this snake is very varied, consisting of voles and mice, young birds which it takes from the nests, being a good climber on bushes and low trees, occasionally of frogs, but above all of other reptiles: lizards, slow-worms, and snakes, which it does not attempt to crush before deglutition. It has even been observed in Istria to eat locusts (Acridium Ægyptium) and sphyngid moths.

Reproduction.—Eggs, laid at the end of June or beginning of July in a well-sheltered hole, are a little over twice as long as broad, and measure 1·2 to 1·4 inches in length. The number of eggs is eight to fifteen according to Fatio, about a dozen according to Tomasini, five according to Werner. The pairing was observed by Schreiber at the end of May, the male and female seizing each other reciprocally by the neck with their jaws; this mode of pairing must not, however, be regarded as the rule in this species, for in other cases observed by Schreiber and by Honnorat the pairs were simply entwined by their coils.

Form.—Very slender; head narrow, snout moderately prominent, obtuse. Tail about one-third of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral a little broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal not or but little broader than the supraocular, once and two-thirds to once and three-fourths as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One preocular, usually in contact with the frontal, with a subocular below it; two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials eight or nine, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

Scales with a single apical pit, very narrow, in nineteen rows. Ventral shields very distinctly angulate laterally, 205 to 218; anal divided; subcaudals 98 to 132.

Coloration.—Olive in front, with a few large black, white- or yellow-edged spots on each side, the anterior of which is sometimes confluent with its fellow and forms a nuchal collar, as in the specimen figured on Plate V.; the greater part of the body and tail uniform pale olive, yellowish, or reddish above, yellowish-white beneath. Head uniform olive-brown above, the labial, preocular, and postocular shields yellowish-white.

Total Length.—3 feet, rarely nearly 4 feet.

Distribution.—Southern Europe east of the Adriatic, as far north as Dalmatia, Asia Minor, Cis- and Trans-Caucasia, North-Western Persia, Cyprus, and Syria. Has also been recorded from Lower Egypt.

Habits.—This snake is even more lively than Z. gemonensis, and does not stand captivity long. It seeks dry, bushy localities, and feeds on small lizards, occasionally on locusts. It does not seem to be very common anywhere in Europe, except perhaps in Dalmatia, whence most of the specimens sold by dealers are imported.

Reproduction.—The pairing has been observed at the end of May. According to Werner, the eggs number usually three only, measuring 11/2 inches by 1/2 inch.

Form.—Slender; snout obtuse, feebly prominent. Tail one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral once and one-third to once and a half as broad as deep, the portion visible from above measuring about one-fourth to one-third its distance from the frontal. Frontal bell-shaped, considerably broader in front than the supraocular, once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep, sometimes divided into two. One preocular (sometimes divided into two), in contact with the frontal; two postoculars; a series of three or four suboculars, usually completely separating the eye from the labials. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Eight or nine (rarely ten) upper labials, fifth or sixth very rarely entering the eye. Four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.

Scales with two apical pits, in twenty-five to twenty-nine rows, usually twenty-seven. Ventral shields very distinctly angulate laterally, 222 to 258; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 77 to 107.

Coloration.—Brown, pale olive, reddish, yellow, or orange above, with a dorsal series of large dark brown, black-edged rhomboidal spots, often bordered with yellow, on each side of which is a series of smaller, alternating spots (Plate V.); these spots may become entirely black in the adult, and so large as to reduce the ground colour to a mere network or series of X-shaped pale lines. A dark cross-band between the eyes, and a ?- or horseshoe-shaped band on the back of the head, which may be confluent with an elongate spot on the nape; a light circle often present in the middle between the parietal shields. The spots often more or less confluent into three longitudinal streaks on the tail. Yellow, orange, or red beneath, with or without black dots, but constantly with a lateral series of black spots, which may be very large or unite with the spots higher up on the sides to form vertical bars.

Size.—Examples 5 feet long are on record; the largest examined by me measures 4 feet 3 inches.

Distribution.—Spain and Portugal, Sardinia, Pantellaria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia. Does not reach the North of Spain nor penetrate into the Sahara.

Habits.—This very handsome snake is as a rule as irascible as its European congeners. In Spain as well as in Algeria it is often found about the dwellings of man, occasionally entering houses in search of mice, on which it principally feeds; it is also fond of birds, and, climbing with great facility, plunders the nests of sparrows in towns and villages. It must be regarded as a useful commensal of man, and deserving of protection.

Reproduction.—F. Doumergue found in a hole in a rock near Oran, in September, the recently-laid eggs, five in number and as large as pigeons’.

Maxillary teeth equal or nearly equal in length. Head elongate, distinct from neck; eye moderately large, with round pupil. Body more or less elongate; scales smooth or feebly keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate or long.

This large genus, embracing close upon fifty species, is represented in Europe, Asia, and North and tropical America. Five species in Europe. Very nearly allied to Zamenis, but distinguished principally by the posterior teeth of the upper jaw not being at all enlarged, and, further, in being, like Coronella, constrictors.

Form.—Moderately slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail one-sixth to one-fourth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the rostral, shorter than the parietals. Loreal nearly as long as deep, with one or two small shields below it. One preocular, rarely divided, with a subocular below it; two or three postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 4. Upper labials eight (exceptionally nine), fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five (rarely three) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the posterior.

Scales feebly but distinctly keeled, except on the outer rows, with two apical pits, in twenty-five (rarely twenty-three or twenty-seven) rows. Ventral shields not or but very obtusely angulate laterally, 195 to 234; anal divided; subcaudals 56 to 90.

Coloration.—Young (Plate VI., top) with three or five alternating longitudinal series of dark brown, black-edged spots on a yellowish, grey, or pale brown ground, the spots of the median series largest, transversely elliptical or rhomboidal; a dark streak across the forehead, black bars on the labial shields, and a black oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth. In specimens from Italy and the countries bordering the Adriatic (the typical C. quatuorlineatus) the markings very gradually disappear with age, with the exception of the temporal streak, whilst a pair of black streaks appear along each side of the body, at a short distance from the head, the lower corresponding to the postocular streak, the adult being brown without spots, but four-lined (Plate VI., second figure). In more eastern specimens (C. sauromates, Pallas), which may be regarded as representing the original form, the markings of the young persist throughout life, or, if they disappear, they are not replaced by dark streaks (Plate VI., third figure). Lower parts pale yellow, closely spotted or marbled with brown, these markings usually disappearing in the adult, except on the tail. Iris dark brown.

Size.—The largest European snake, stated to reach a length of 8 feet. The largest specimen examined by me measures, however, only 41/2 feet.

Distribution.—Aldrovandi’s Snake inhabits Southern Italy and Sicily, Istria, Croatia, Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Greece, and eastwards to Southern Russia, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, and Persia. It has been observed at an altitude of 2,600 feet in Herzegovina.

All the specimens from Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and eastwards, belong to the var. sauromates, which is regarded by some authors as worthy of specific rank. The reported occurrence of C. quatuorlineatus in various parts of France is certainly due to confusion with C. scalaris and C. longissimus.

Habits.—Dry as well as marshy localities are the abode of this large and handsome snake, which often approaches the dwellings of man, attracted by the poultry. Comparatively slow in its movements, it is more easily captured than any of the other large Colubrids of Europe, and does well in captivity, where it should be provided with a tank, in which it will remain for hours under water. It is as good at swimming as at climbing. Biting readily when captured, it becomes of gentle disposition after a short period of captivity. In consequence of its slow, phlegmatic temperament, it often allows itself to be picked up when surprised in liberty, but as soon as it feels the grasp it turns round and defends itself. It appears to feed exclusively on mammals and birds, up to the size of a rat or dove, and will readily take dead food. It has a predilection for eggs, and has often been observed to swallow hens’ eggs.

Reproduction.—In Herzegovina pairing takes place from the middle of June to the middle of July, and the eggs are laid soon after, to hatch in September or beginning of October. The eggs number six to sixteen, and measure 2 inches by 11/3 inches. The young measure 8 to 14 inches at birth.

Form.—Similar to the preceding. Head more convex, a little narrower; snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep, or a little longer than deep. A large preocular, with a subocular below it, the latter very exceptionally absent; two or three postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine (very rarely seven), fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are nearly as long as the posterior.

Scales smooth or faintly keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-five or twenty-seven (rarely twenty-three) rows. Ventral shields not or but very obtusely angulate laterally, 172 to 214; anal divided; subcaudals 50 to 80.

Coloration.—Pale brown or greyish-olive above, with blackish cross-lines or dark brown or reddish, black-edged spots, and usually two or three more or less distinct pale longitudinal bands; two dark longitudinal stripes on the nape, usually united on the head and terminating on the frontal shield; a curved dark cross-band from eye to eye, and another, oblique, from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lower parts yellowish, usually dotted or spotted with blackish.

Size.—Seldom exceeds a length of 3 feet. The largest specimen examined by me measures 37 inches.

Distribution.—Across temperate Asia from Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and the southern border of the Caspian Sea, to the Amur, Corea, and China. In Europe the habitat of this snake is restricted to the steppes of Southern Russia, between the Caucasus and the Lower Ural. The specimen figured on Plate VI. is from Sarepta, on the Volga.

Habits.—This snake frequents arid, sandy localities, and is only exceptionally found in small woods. Nothing more is known of its habits.

Form.—Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent; head narrow. Tail about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and one-third as long as broad, as long as its distance from the rostral or the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep or longer than deep. One pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or a little longer than the posterior.

Scales smooth or feebly keeled on the posterior part of the body, with two apical pits, in twenty-three (rarely twenty-one) rows. Ventral shields distinctly angulate laterally, 212 to 248; anal divided; subcaudals 60 to 91.

Coloration.—Yellowish-grey to dark olive-brown above, some of the scales with whitish lines on the margins occasionally forming a network; sometimes with a yellowish vertebral stripe or with four darker stripes along the body (var. romanus, Suckow); upper lip, and often also a triangular patch on each side behind the temple, pale yellow; a more or less distinct dark band on the temple, and a vertical dark bar below the eye (Plate VII., first figure). Lower parts uniform pale yellow. Young (second figure) with dark brown dorsal spots, forming four to seven longitudinal series, a ?-shaped black marking on the nape behind the yellow nuchal blotches, which are brighter than in the adult, a dark brown bar across the forehead, and a black vertical line below the eye; belly greyish or yellowish-olive. Iris dark grey or brown. Tongue pinkish-brown.

Melanism is rare in this snake. Such specimens are entirely black above and beneath (var. niger, Nikolsky), or blackish-grey to black above, dark grey beneath (var. subgriseus, Werner), the angular line on each side of the belly often remaining light. An albino found near Vienna has been described as pale orange-yellow above, with small white spots; pupil and tongue red.

Size.—Grows to 6 feet. Specimens over 41/2 feet are, however, very rarely met with.

Distribution.—Generally distributed over the greater part of Austria, Italy, with Sardinia and Sicily, and the whole of South-Eastern Europe, this snake has a very broken range in France, Switzerland, Germany, and is found, quite isolated, as far north as Denmark and Poland. According to Segerus, quoted by LacepÈde, it used to be quite common near Copenhagen at the end of the eighteenth century, but it is now much rarer. Its northern limit in France is in Southern Brittany, the Department Orne, and the Forest of Fontainebleau; in Germany, Schlangenbad, near Wiesbaden, perhaps also Baden-Baden and Treves. It is on record from Southern Spain. Its discontinuous distribution in Central Europe, and its presence in various localities near former Roman thermal stations, has been ascribed to its introduction from Italy as an inmate of the temples erected to Æsculapius; but I am more inclined to look upon its sporadic occurrence in the North as the indication of a once more widely distributed species now in process of extinction over part of its range.

In Asia the Æsculapian Snake is only found in Transcaucasia. It occurs in the mountains as well as in the plain, being recorded from 5,200 feet altitude in the Tyrol, 3,200 feet in the Apennines.

Habits.—The Æsculapian Snake lives in woods; among shrubby vegetation; in meadows, where it is often found under haystacks; occasionally about old walls. It climbs well, and often ascends trees. Although a good swimmer, it seldom enters the water of its own accord. It feeds chiefly on small mammals, occasionally on birds and their eggs, and lizards. Specimens which I kept in confinement fed on mice only, refusing sparrows and lizards. Very savage when fresh caught, most individuals soon become tame, and like being handled by people to whom they are accustomed, although still resenting the intrusion of strangers. However, this snake never becomes so thoroughly domesticated as the Smooth Snake, and cannot be trained to take food from the hand, according to R. Rollinat, who has devoted many years to experiments on the taming of reptiles. This observer had no difficulty in feeding his Æsculapian Snakes on mice and voles placed dead in their cage.

This snake is particularly sensitive to cold, and does not emerge until late in the spring from the vole galleries and hollow trees which constitute its winter-quarters. It also avoids excessive heat, never showing itself in the daytime during the hotter months in the South of Europe.

Reproduction.—Pairing takes place between the middle of May and the middle of June. The eggs are laid towards the end of June or in July, in holes in walls or hollow trees, under moss, sometimes even in the dung-heaps of farms, and hatch in September. According to trustworthy observers, the eggs, which measure 11/2 to 2 inches in length, and less than 1 inch in width, number only five or six, rarely up to eight.

The young on emerging are highly suggestive of young Grass-snakes in colour and markings, as well as in their much less slender shape as compared with the adult. They measure about 5 inches, and are at once most ready to bite.

Form.—Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Frontal once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2 or 2 + 3. Upper labials eight (rarely seven), fourth and fifth (rarely third and fourth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the posterior.

Scales smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-five or twenty-seven rows. Ventral shields rounded, not angulate laterally, 222 to 260; anal divided; subcaudals 68-90.

Coloration.—Typical form (Plate VII., third figure) greyish or pale brown above, with one dorsal series of dark brown, reddish-brown, or bright red, black-edged transverse spots and a lateral alternating series of smaller black spots with or without lighter centres; usually a [Y]-shaped dark marking on the occiput and nape; a crescentic black band from eye to eye across the prefrontal shields, an oblique black band from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot or vertical bar below the eye. Lower parts white, checkered with black, or nearly entirely black. Iris reddish-golden.

In some specimens (var. quadrilineatus) the dorsal spots are replaced by two brown or red, black-edged stripes bordering a pale greyish or yellowish vertebral stripe (Plate VII., fourth figure); such specimens are so coloured from birth. This colour variety, which is so strikingly different from the typical form, is connected with the latter by the var. schwoederi, Werner, in which the spots form two vertebral series, and the var. elsneri, Werner, in which the light vertebral band is broken up by dark transverse bars, producing a ladder-like pattern.

Size.—Rarely exceeding a length of 3 feet.

Distribution.—Southern Italy, Sicily, Malta, Istria, Dalmatia, and other parts of the Balkan Peninsula, Grecian islands, Crimea, Asia Minor. The altitudinal range does not extend beyond 1,600 feet.

Habits.—This is not only the prettiest European snake as regards its markings, whether in the form of spots or of stripes, but also the most graceful in its movements. Unless compelled to fly for safety, there is something slow and deliberate in its behaviour which is more suggestive of Coronella than of most other species of Coluber. It is fond of climbing, and if the terrarium in which it is kept be provided with a bush or small tree, it will spend most of the time gracefully coiled round the branches. Usually very savage when fresh caught, some specimens become quite tame in captivity. In Dalmatia, where it is not uncommon, this snake is found principally among prickly shrubs, in hedges, or on old walls. It awakens from its winter slumber later than other South European snakes. Although occasionally taking lizards, its principal food consists of mammals and birds, which are killed before being devoured, the Leopard Snake being, like the other members of the genus Coluber, a constrictor.

Reproduction.—According to Werner, the eggs, two to five in number, are deposited in midsummer; they are remarkably elongate: 21/2 inches long, 2/3 inch broad.

Form.—Moderately slender. Snout pointed, strongly projecting beyond the mouth. Tail one-sixth to one-fifth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral deeper than broad, forming an acute angle above, wedged in between the internasals, the portion visible from above nearly as long as its distance from the frontal. Frontal about once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or shorter than its distance from the end of the snout, nearly as long as the parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two or three post-oculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 2 + 4. Upper labials seven or eight (rarely nine), fourth or fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which may be either longer or shorter than the posterior.

Scales smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-seven (rarely twenty-five or twenty-nine) rows. Ventral shields not angulate laterally, 201 to 220; anal divided, rarely entire; subcaudals 48 to 68.

Coloration.—Young yellowish-grey, or pale brown, above, with a series of regular H-shaped black or blackish-brown markings along the back, forming a ladder-like pattern—whence the name scalaris—and small black spots on the sides; a V-shaped black marking on the snout, a black oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot below the eye; belly yellow, spotted or checkered with black or nearly entirely black. These dorsal markings disappear in the adult, and are replaced by a pair of brown stripes running along the back (Plate VIII.); the belly loses the black markings, and becomes uniform yellow. Iris dark brown.

Size.—Grows to a length of 31/2 feet, exceptionally 41/2 feet.

Distribution.—The Mediterranean coast of France, Spain and Portugal, and Minorca. Its occurrence in Algeria is very doubtful.

Habits.—Not uncommon near the coast in France, in hedges and vineyards, often climbing on shrubs. In the Spanish Peninsula, according to BoscÁ, it is common in forests and on the sheltered side of valleys, under stones or in holes in the ground. A specimen I kept alive for a short time showed a more furious temper than I have ever witnessed in any snake, repeatedly flying with open mouth against the glass of its cage whenever I entered the room in which it was kept. Other specimens are reported to have become quite tame after a certain time. It is one of the quickest of European snakes, one of the most difficult to catch; it is a good climber. The food consists of mice, birds, and lizards; the young are said to occasionally eat grasshoppers.

Reproduction.—According to J. von Fischer, the eggs, nine in number, are deposited twenty-five days after the pairing, which takes place in May or June, and measure about 2 inches by 2/3 inch.

Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly. Head not or but slightly distinct from neck; eye rather small, with round pupil. No subocular shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate.

This genus, embracing about twenty species, is represented in the different parts of the Northern Hemisphere, extending a little beyond the Equator in East Africa. Two species are European.

Form.—Moderately slender; snout more or less prominent, sometimes decidedly pointed; tail one-fourth (males) to one-sixth (females) of the total length. The considerable differences to be observed in the shape of the snout are merely individual, specimens with more prominent snout and a corresponding development of the rostral shield (C. italica, Fitz., fitzingeri, Bonap.) occurring over the greater part of the range of the species.

Head-Shields.—Rostral at least as deep as broad, more or less produced posteriorly between the internasals, the portion visible from above at least half as long (in some specimens quite as long) as its distance from the frontal, rarely separating the internasals. Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, much broader than the supraocular, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, widely separated from the preocular. Nasal rarely undivided; loreal longer than deep. One (very rarely two) pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (very rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials seven (rarely eight), third and fourth (or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four lower labials (rarely three) in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or longer than the anterior.

Scales with one or two apical pits, the pit usually single on the back and paired on the sides, in nineteen (rarely twenty-one) rows.^[2] Ventral shields 153 to 199; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 41 to 70.

Coloration.—Grey, brown, or reddish above, with small blackish, dark brown, or brick-red spots usually disposed in pairs, sometimes forming cross-bars; sometimes with one or three lighter stripes; one or two black dots precede on each scale the single or paired apical pit; frequently two blackish, dark brown, or brick-red stripes on the nape, usually confluent with a large dark blotch on the occiput; the top of the head occasionally nearly entirely blackish, especially in the young; a dark streak on each side of the head, from the nostril to the angle of the mouth, passing through the eye, sometimes extending along the side of the neck or even of the whole body. Lower parts red, orange, brown, grey, or black, uniform or speckled or closely spotted with black and white, the sides often lighter (Plate IX.).

A colour variety, of which I have examined a single specimen from near Vienna, is pale brown above, with four black lines along the anterior part of the body, and two small, yellowish, dark-edged spots close together on the back of the head, separated by the suture between the parietal shields.

Werner has described another variety, also from near Vienna, which resembles Coluber leopardinus, having two series of large, brown, dark-edged spots along the back, some of the spots alternating, others uniting across the back. Apparently very similar to the last variety, and also said to be suggestive of Coluber leopardinus, is the var. scalaris, Sternfeld, from LÜneburg in Hanover, reddish-brown above, with two rows of bright red, black-edged spots, partly confluent and connected across the spine by transverse bars producing a ladder-like pattern. Specimens of a uniform greyish-brown, without any markings, are very rare. The var. veithi, Schreiber, established on a single specimen from Carinthia, represents a case of melanism: bluish-black, with the normal markings of an intense black. Two specimens of a “black variety” are said to have been found in this country, near Poole.

Size.—Seldom exceeds a length of 2 feet, and in many districts, in England for instance, does not appear to often reach that size. The largest specimen, from Austria, examined by me, measures 25 inches; one from Hampshire measures 24 inches.

Distribution.—The range of the Smooth Snake extends over nearly the whole of Europe, as far north as 63° in Norway; it becomes rare and more local in the south, being absent from part of Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean, with the exception of Sardinia. It is common in the hilly parts of Belgium, Northern and Central France, Germany, and Austria. In Sweden it appears to be restricted to the oak region. In Great Britain it has been found in four counties in the South of England: Surrey, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and Berkshire, in some parts of which it is less uncommon than usually supposed. Its reported occurrence in Dumfriesshire is the result of an error; the snake figured as Coluber dumfriesiensis represents an American species. In a very interesting article written for Science Gossip in 1888, Mr. A. L. Beldy says that about 1868, when Bournemouth was but a very small village, surrounded by large expanses of moorland, Coronella austriaca was extraordinarily abundant, and during a hot summer examples were to be seen literally in scores and great numbers were killed. Since then, however, their numbers have gradually decreased. About 1880 the snake was occasionally found near Wellington College, Berks, and as many as five were captured by one person in the course of one year; it is believed to be now extinct in that neighbourhood. From South-Eastern Europe the range of this species extends to South-Western Asia. The ascertained altitudinal range is 4,000 feet in the Alps, 6,000 feet in Bosnia, and 6,500 feet in the Caucasus.

Habits.—The Smooth Snake lives on heathland, stony wastes, and wooded hills, showing a preference for dry localities. Although not infrequent on the Dorsetshire and Hampshire heaths, where it was first discovered in 1853, it was not recorded as a British reptile until 1859; it was discovered much later on the sandy heaths between Haslemere and Farnham, where it occurs in small numbers, and in Berkshire. These localities are likewise inhabited by the rarer British lizard, the Sand Lizard. Notwithstanding its gentle, timid appearance, this snake when fresh caught is usually very ready to bite; either it snaps angrily, or, without hissing or other warning, it suddenly fastens its jaws into the finger of its captor, even if it be gently handled. The food consists mostly of lizards, occasionally of slow-worms or small snakes, more rarely of voles or mice, even shrews, which are seized, constrictor-like, and crushed by the coils of the body. O. von Tomasini has observed one swallowing a Coluber longissimus as large as itself.

In Central Europe this snake becomes active towards the end of March or beginning of April, and retires in September or October. It does well in captivity, and becomes very tame. It is one of the most intelligent of snakes, second to none in educability; it can be trained to feed in the hand of its master.

Reproduction.—The Smooth Snake pairs in early spring, and is ovoviviparous. The young, two to fifteen in number, are born late in August or in September, enveloped by a thin membrane which they tear immediately; they measure 5 to 6 inches. Embryos 31/2 or 4 inches long have the scaling and the characteristic markings fully developed, but the scales and shields much abbreviated, the former broader than long. A dicephalous young is preserved in the Bosnian Museum at Sarajev, and another was caught near Karlsruhe, in Germany, in 1881, and kept alive for some time. According to Rollinat, a second autumnal pairing sometimes takes place in France.

Distinguished from the preceding by a somewhat more slender form, a more obtuse, scarcely prominent snout, a much lower rostral shield, which is considerably broader than deep and just visible from above, not penetrating between the internasals, constantly eight upper labials, fourth and fifth entering the eye, and the scales in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or twenty-three) rows. Ventrals 170 to 200; anal divided; subcaudals 49 to 72.

Coloration.—Brown, greyish, yellowish, or reddish above, with dark brown or black spots or transverse bars, sometimes with four dark stripes in addition; dark dots in front of the apical pits as in the preceding species; a pair of elongate dark spots or a U-shaped marking on the nape; a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a dark cross-bar from eye to eye, across the prefrontal shields; a dark line below the eye. Lower parts yellow, orange, or coral red, with large, mostly quadrangular black spots, often arranged in chess-board fashion, or with two series of black spots (Plate X.), which may be confluent into two longitudinal bands.

Total Length.—26 inches.

Distribution.—South of France (as far north as the Charente-InfÉrieure to the west, the DauphinÉ to the east), the whole of Spain and Portugal, Southern Tyrol, Italy, and Sicily. It has not been recorded from higher than 2,500 feet in the Alps. Rare in Northern Morocco and Algeria. In many localities in Europe it occurs alongside with C. austriaca.

Habits.—All that is known to me of the habits of this close ally of the preceding species is derived from the works of Bonaparte, GenÉ, and Schreiber, and from a note by Gachet, who observed it near Bordeaux and described it under the name of Coluber rubens. According to these authors, it frequents dry and rocky localities as well as old walls, in which it finds a refuge and a good supply of the lizards on which it feeds. A large specimen from Albano, near Rome, preserved in the Genoa Museum, had swallowed a full-grown Chalcides tridactylus. This Coronella is crepuscular, rarely showing itself in the daytime, leaving its retreat only after sunset, and has been observed to crawl about by moonlight. Its movements are slow, which accounts for crushed specimens being often met with on paths or roads. Contrary to the rule in C. austriaca, it is extremely gentle, seldom attempting to bite.

Reproduction.—Whether this species is ovoviviparous, like its European congener, has not, I think, been ascertained. All we know on this matter is that a female found dead on a road near Bordeaux by M. Lataste at the end of June contained eggs which showed no trace of embryos. This does not, however, settle the question, as the young would not be born until at least two months later. According to GenÉ, pairing takes place in May, when specimens have been observed to congregate in considerable numbers.

Maxillary teeth subequal. Head not or but slightly distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with round pupil. Nasal single; no subocular shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate.

This genus, with certain modifications in the above definition, is made to embrace about twenty-five species from South-Western Asia and Sind and North and Central America. One of the species inhabiting Asia extends into a very small part of Europe.

Form.—Moderately slender. Head small, quite flat above; snout obtuse, feebly prominent. Length of tail four to five times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral a little broader than deep, visible from above. Suture between the internasals as long as or a little shorter than that between the prefrontals. Frontal once and a half to once and two-thirds as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, as broad as or a little broader than the supraocular, widely separated from the preocular. Nostril in the middle or upper part of the nasal. Loreal square or longer than deep. One (rarely two) pre- and two (rarely one) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2; parietal sometimes nearly touching the fifth upper labial. Upper labials seven, third and fourth entering the eye. Four (rarely five) lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shield; posterior chin-shields smaller than the anterior, and separated from each other by one or two rows of scales.

Scales with a single apical pit, in seventeen rows. Ventral shields 150 to 191; anal divided; subcaudals 53 to 78.

Coloration.—Not unlike that of a young Zamenis gemonensis. Greyish-olive above, uniform or each scale lighter in the centre. The greater part of the upper surface of the head behind the snout, together with the nape, black in the young, with a yellow cross-bar or a pair of yellow spots between the eyes, the bar sometimes confluent with the yellow postoculars, and a horseshoe-shaped band of the same colour on the temples and across the occiput (Plate X.); the black of the nape again edged with yellow behind. More or less distinct traces of these markings are preserved in adult specimens. Upper lip yellowish, with black spots or bars on the sutures between the shields. Lower parts uniform white or yellowish.

In the var. semimaculata, Boettger, from Chios, small dark spots are scattered over the upper parts of the anterior half of the body.

Size.—This snake rarely reaches a length of 19 inches. It is the smallest Colubrid of Europe.

Distribution.—The Caucasus up to about 5,000 feet, Asia Minor, Chios, Cyprus, Syria, Mesopotamia, and North-Western Persia. The northern slope of the Caucasus appears to be the only part of Europe included in its habitat. The British Museum possesses two specimens labelled as from Constantinople, but the presence of this species in European Turkey requires confirmation.

A closely allied species, which has been confounded with C. modesta, C. collaris (MÉnÉtriÈs), and which also inhabits the Caucasus without having been recorded from the northern slope, is distinguished by having the scales in fifteen rows (very rarely seventeen), and the posterior chin-shields in contact with each other.

Habits.—Nothing is known as regards this species, but the North American members of the genus Contia are chiefly insectivorous and oviparous.

Maxillary teeth small and subequal, followed after a short interspace by one or two very large grooved fangs situated below the posterior border of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head not very distinct from neck, with angular canthus rostralis and projecting supraocular; eye large, with round pupil; nostril a crescentic slit in a single or divided nasal. Body elongate; scales smooth, more or less distinctly grooved longitudinally in the adult, with apical pits. Tail moderately long.

The range of this genus, which comprises only two species, extends over Southern Europe, South-Western Asia, and North Africa.

Form.—Slender; head elongate, narrow, concave above on the snout and between the eyes; snout projecting, rounded, with raised canthus and concave loreal region. Tail about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral nearly as deep as broad, just visible from above. Internasals much shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal very narrow, twice to twice and a half as long as broad, its width in the middle not more than half that of the supraocular, widening in front and extending beyond the supraoculars to join the preoculars, longer than its distance from the end of snout, as long as or a little longer than the parietals. Two loreals. One preocular, the upper portion of which is much enlarged, and encroaches upon the area occupied in other snakes by the prefrontal and the supraocular; two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely nine), fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or shorter than the posterior.

Scales with single apical pits, in seventeen or nineteen rows, longitudinally grooved in the adult, less distinctly in the young. Ventral shields 160 to 189; anal divided; subcaudals 68 to 102.

Coloration.—The young is elegantly marked with dark brown and yellowish-white on a pale brown ground. On the head, the principal dark markings usually are an oblique band on the posterior half of the supraocular shield, and another, or a large spot, on the parietal, sometimes produced backwards, and forming with its fellow a ?-shaped band, separated from a large occipital blotch by a yellowish space; anterior half of the frontal shield and shields on the snout edged with dark brown; a dark streak, sometimes broken up into small spots, on the temporal region; yellow spots on the pre- and post-oculars; lips brown, with large, yellow, black-edged spots, or yellow with brown spots; chin with three brown longitudinal streaks. Back with a vertebral series of large roundish dark spots or narrow cross-bars; small spots on the sides, these sometimes forming longitudinal series or accompanied by yellowish streaks or dots; these markings often confluent into three longitudinal streaks on the tail. Belly pale brownish, greyish, or reddish, with numerous pale spots, sometimes with a dark brown line on each side. The adult is greyish, reddish-brown, or olive above. Some specimens preserve more or less the markings of the young, and the dark dorsal markings (Plate XI.) may be edged with yellowish and ocellar in appearance (var. insignitus, Geoffroy); the belly is yellowish, with small dark spots which usually form longitudinal series, and may be confluent into streaks. A variety common in Dalmatia (neumayeri, Fitzinger) is brown or olive above, without spots, sides with a bluish-grey lateral band, the scales on which are edged with black, the belly uniform yellow. Other specimens are brown or reddish, with light edges to the scales on the sides, or with yellowish lateral lines, or dark olive or dark brown above and black on the sides, each scale with a yellowish central spot; in the last-mentioned the second third of the back may be almost entirely black, and the belly dark olive-grey in the middle and yellowish on the sides. Iris brown, with a golden or coppery circle round the pupil.

Size.—This handsome snake grows to a length of 61/2 feet. Specimens 5 to 6 feet long are not uncommon.

Distribution.—Mediterranean coast of France and Western Liguria, Spain and Portugal, Sicily, Lampedusa, eastern coast of the Adriatic, Greece and eastern islands of the Mediterranean, Mediterranean coast of Asia and Sinaitic Peninsula, eastwards to the Caucasus and Persia, North Africa from Egypt to Rio de Oro. It is not known to occur above 2,300 feet altitude in Europe.

Habits.—A lively, swift snake, living on land and on low bushes, often found near human habitations. Some specimens are very vicious, whilst others show a gentle disposition after a short period of captivity. A specimen nearly 6 feet long, which I kept for some time, never attempted to bite when handled, and some have become so tame as to take food from the hand. The sense of sight appears to be better developed than in any other European snake. The food consists chiefly of mammals, even large rats and young rabbits, birds such as chickens, partridges, and quails, lizards, and other snakes, which, if of considerable size, are not swallowed until paralyzed or killed by the effect of the poison. In Eastern Europe, Vipera ammodytes is said to be the principal enemy of Coelopeltis, and the two snakes are consequently seldom found together in the same locality.

Many experiments have been made on the action of the poison of this Opisthoglyph. Peracca and Deregibus, as well as, later, Phisalix, found a striking similarity with the symptoms of Cobra poison in their experiments on small animals, the suspension of the respiration occurring in a few minutes, the blood being otherwise unaffected. It has been stated by some authors that Coelopeltis poison has little or no action on man, but a French zoologist, E. Taton-Baulmont, having been bitten in the index-finger by a four-foot-long specimen at Algiers, the swelling extended within thirty hours up to the shoulder, and was accompanied by fever and nervous troubles. As a rule, however, the bite of this snake has no poisonous effect on man, from the fact that the fangs conveying the venom are situated so far back in the mouth as not to come into action.

Reproduction.—According to Werner, the eggs, four to twelve in number, are laid in July, and measure 2 inches in length and 1/2 inch in width.

Maxillary teeth few and very unequal in size, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth enlarged and followed by an interspace, the two last teeth fang-like and grooved, situated just behind the eye; sixth mandibular tooth fang-like, and separated from the remainder by an interspace. Head slightly distinct from neck; eye rather small, the pupil vertically elliptic or subelliptic when contracted. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate or rather short.

A single species.

Form.—Very similar to the Smooth Snakes, with which it has been confounded, but snout broader and very strongly depressed. Tail five and a half to six and a half times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral at least twice as broad as deep, not or but scarcely visible from above. Internasals as long as or a little shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal not much broader than the supraocular in the adult, once and a half to twice as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Nasal usually semidivided. Loreal once and a half to twice as long as deep. One preocular, extending to the upper surface of the head, but not reaching the frontal; two (rarely one or three) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials eight, fourth and fifth entering the eye, sixth usually in contact with the parietal. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or a little shorter than the posterior.

Scales with mostly single apical pits, the pits sometimes paired on the sides of the body, in twenty-one or twenty-three rows (nineteen to twenty-five in North African specimens). Ventral shields 153 to 192; anal divided; subcaudals 40 to 54.

Coloration.—Pale brown or greyish above, with small dark brown or blackish spots or with more or less distinct darker and lighter longitudinal streaks. Upper surface of head with dark brown vermiculations; a dark brown or black, often light-edged occipito-nuchal band, extending downwards to the gular region and produced forwards into a point to between the parietal shields; a dark brown or black streak on each side of the head from the end of the snout, through the eye, to the last lower labial shield, traversing the four last upper labials, which are yellowish above and below the streak (Plate XI.). Lower parts yellow or coral red, with black spots, which may form a tessellated pattern, two longitudinal series, or be so crowded as to fuse into a band along the middle of the belly and tail.

The above description is taken from Spanish specimens (Badajos, Algeciras, Andalucia), but the variations are very great when we take North Africa into consideration. The nuchal band may be narrow or broken up into spots, the median of which sometimes forms a longitudinal streak, or so much enlarged as to fuse with the dark markings on the upper surface of the head; in some specimens (from Morocco and Algeria) the upper surface of the head and the nape may be entirely ink black, or the whole head black above and beneath with the exception of a whitish streak bordering the upper lip. The dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth may be absent, or reduced to a short oblique streak below the eye. Irrespective of the variations in the markings of the upper parts, the lower parts may be more or less spotted with black, or immaculate.

Some specimens of this small snake bear a general resemblance to Coronella girondica, with which Macroprotodon has sometimes been confounded. But a careful examination of its whole structure shows it to be more affine to Coelopeltis and Tarbophis, the other European representatives of the Opisthoglyphous Colubrids.

Size.—The largest European specimen examined measures 171/2 inches. Specimens up to 22 inches long occur in Algeria and Tunisia.

Distribution.—In Europe this snake is only known from Spain (Estremadura, New Castille, Andalucia), Portugal (Alemtejo), the Balearic Islands (Majorca and Minorca), and the island of Lampedusa. In North Africa it is generally distributed from the north coast of Egypt to the Rio de Oro; in Algeria it penetrates into the northern parts of the Sahara. The specimen figured on Plate XI. is from Algeciras.

Habits.—Appear to be similar to those of Coronella girondica. Crepuscular in its habits, it is usually found under stones or in burrows in the ground. Unless pursued, when it darts off with great rapidity, its movements are slow. It is very ready to bite, but no experiments have been made on the effects of its poison. The food consists chiefly of small lizards.

Reproduction.—All that is known on this head is that, according to Doumergue, eggs are laid in July in Algeria.

Maxillary teeth few, anterior longest, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly, and followed, after an interspace, by a pair of enlarged, grooved fangs, situated below the posterior border of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with vertically elliptic pupil. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, oblique, with apical pits. Tail moderate or rather short.

The eight species of this genus inhabit South-Eastern Europe, South-Western Asia, and Africa. Two are dealt with here.

Form.—Moderately slender. Head much depressed. Tail five and a half to seven times in the total length.

Head-Shields.—Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above. Internasals shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal much broader than the supraocular, once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals. Nasal divided or semidivided. Loreal twice and a half to thrice as long as deep, entering the eye below the preocular, which is in contact with the frontal. Two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals small, scale-like, 2 or 3 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely seven or nine), third, fourth, and fifth (rarely fourth and fifth, or fourth, fifth, and sixth) entering the eye. Three or four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields; posterior chin-shields very small and widely separated from each other by scales.

Scales with single or paired apical pits, in nineteen or twenty-one rows, usually nineteen in European specimens. Ventral shields 186 to 222; anal divided; subcaudals 48 to 73.

Coloration.—Greyish above, with 40 to 57 brown or black spots or bars on the body; a lateral series of smaller spots or vertical bars, alternating with the dorsals; the first spot, on the nape, elongate, usually with one or three linear processes in front, extending on the head (Plate XI.); usually a dark streak on each side of the head, from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lower parts whitish, speckled, spotted, or marbled with grey or brown. Iris brown, with a golden circle round the pupil.

Size.—This species grows to a length of 2 feet 10 inches.

Distribution.—From Istria and Dalmatia to Greece, the Archipelago, Constantinople, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and Northern Syria; 2,600 feet appears to be its altitudinal limit.

Habits.—Although to a certain extent crepuscular or nocturnal, the Cat-snake is often seen hunting in the daytime, its food consisting almost exclusively of lizards, rarely of small mammals. Its movements are rather slow. The names Katzenschlange and Ailurophis, translated Cat-snake, probably originated from the way in which this snake stalks its prey, and suddenly pounces upon it. According to Eiffe, the poison causes the death of a Lacerta vivipara in one minute, and P. de Grijs observed the larger Lacerta agilis to die in two or three minutes. As a rule even fresh-caught specimens allow themselves to be handled without attempting to bite; some specimens, on the other hand, are very savage. Stony localities, old walls, and ruins, are the favourite abodes of this snake, which does well in captivity.

Reproduction.—Seven or eight eggs are laid in July; they measure about 11/4 inches in length and 1/2 inch in width.

Very closely allied to the preceding, and differing from it only in the following points: Parietals shorter, slightly longer than the frontal, and anal entire. Loreal twice to twice and a half as long as deep. Fourth and fifth, or third, fourth, and fifth, labials entering the eye. Scales in nineteen or twenty-one rows. Ventrals 203 to 235; subcaudals 54 to 70.

Grey above, with 35 to 40 blackish spots on the body, the anterior largest and darkest; a lateral series of smaller spots or vertical bars. Lower parts blackish, with small whitish spots and dots. Reaches a length of 31/2 feet.

This species inhabits the Caucasus, and, being on record from the northern slope (Kuban River), has to be included in the European fauna. It occurs also in Mesopotamia, a specimen from Bagdad being preserved in the British Museum. The young specimen figured on Plate XI. is stated to be from Constantinople.

Nothing is known of its habits, which are probably the same as those of Tarbophis fallax.