Maxillary, palatine, and pterygoid bones movable, the first much abbreviated, erectile perpendicularly to the large transverse bone, and supporting a pair of large canaliculated poison fangs; mandible without coronoid bone. No vestiges of pelvic arch. All more or less poisonous, some being among the most dangerous of snakes. Divided into two subfamilies, each of which is represented by one genus in Europe: ViperinÆ.—No pit on the side of the snout; maxillary bone not hollowed out. CrotalinÆ.—A deep pit on each side of the snout, between the nostril and the eye; maxillary bone hollowed out above. The ViperinÆ inhabit nearly the whole of Europe, Genus VIPERA, Laurenti Head distinct from neck, covered with small shields or scales, with or without distinct frontal and parietal shields; eye moderate or small, with vertical pupil, separated from the labial shields by scales; nasal separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body short. Scales keeled, with apical pits. Tail short. Of the eleven species of this genus, six are found in Europe; two inhabit South-Western Asia, one the Indo-Malay region, and two Eastern Africa. The distinction of the European species is one of considerable difficulty, owing to their close relationship and the presence of intermediate forms connecting them. Matters being so, it seems curious that the Common Adder should have been regarded by so many authors as generically distinct from the Asp Viper, under the name of Pelias berus. It is highly probable that hybrids are produced in those districts where two species coexist, as in some parts of France, North Italy, and Austria. 21. Vipera ursinii, Bonaparte Orsini’s Viper Form.—Short and stout. Snout obtusely pointed, flat above or with the canthus slightly raised. Eye Head-Shields.—Rostral as deep as broad or slightly deeper than broad, visible from above, in contact with one apical shield (rarely with two). Distinct frontal and (usually) parietal shields, the former once and a half to once and two-thirds (rarely once and one-third) as long as broad, as long as its distance from the rostral or the end of the snout, and nearly always longer than the parietals; the latter always in contact with the former, rarely broken up into small shields. Four to seven small shields on the snout between the canthals, of which there are two on each side. Supraocular well developed, extending posteriorly beyond the vertical of the eye, separated Scales in nineteen (rarely twenty or twenty-one) rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides, outer row smooth. Ventral shields 120 to 135 in males, 125 to 142 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 30 to 37 in males, 20 to 28 in females. By adding the subcaudals to the ventrals in a hundred specimens, the total numbers are 153 to 169 in males, 150 to 168 in females. Coloration.—Unlike its ally V. berus, V. ursinii shows no sexual differences in the coloration. The ground colour of the back is usually yellowish or pale brown, sharply defined from the darker grey or brown colour of the sides; some specimens, however, are of an almost uniform brown ground colour. The light colour of the back is relieved by a series of more or less regular transversely oval, elliptic, or rhomboidal dark brown, black-edged spots, some or all of which may run together to form a wavy or zigzag band (Plate XII.). Two or three longitudinal series of dark The form recently described as V. macrops, MÉhely, from Bosnia and Herzegovina, is distinguished by a usually larger eye, the vertical diameter of which equals or a little exceeds its distance from the mouth, and the parietals are often broken up into small shields. The postocular dark band is often reduced, originating at some distance from the eye, and is not prolonged beyond the mouth. In this geographical race melanic specimens occasionally occur, which are dark brown or blackish above, the lower parts not differing from those of the typical form. Distribution.—First discovered in Italy in the Abruzzi, this species has since been found in the Basses-Alpes, near Digne, in various parts of Hungary, in Lower Austria, on the island of Veglia in Istria, and in Bosnia, Bulgaria, Herzegovina, and Montenegro. A very broken and curious distribution, the more so as V. ursinii is essentially a form of the plain in Lower Austria and Hungary, and an alpine form in Italy, in France, and in the Balkan Peninsula, where it only occurs between 3,000 and 6,800 feet. In no part of its habitat does it appear ever to be found in company with V. berus. Habits.—Only a few specimens have hitherto been found in Italy and in France, but the species occurred up to a few years ago in extraordinary numbers in Lower Austria, in the immediate vicinity of Laxenburg. The intendant of the imperial castle pays a premium for the destruction of Vipers, and in the course of one year (1892) more than 1,000 specimens were brought to him. These snakes are found principally, though not exclusively, in the marshy meadows around the park, where they may be seen about in the daytime from May to September, feeding chiefly on lizards (Lacerta agilis), and also on small rodents. The lizards are swallowed as soon as seized, without Reproduction.—Nothing has been published on the breeding habits of this species, but in a letter to the author, dated January 14, 1913, Herr L. von Kirchroth, who has examined over 4,000 specimens since 1890, says the young are born in July or August, exceptionally as early as June. Young females bring forth from six to eight young, According to Captain Veith, the form described as V. macrops brings forth only from three to five young. 22. Vipera renardi, Christoph Renard’s Viper Form.—Similar to the preceding species, but snout more pointed, the raised canthi rostrales meeting at an acute angle. Eye usually as large as in V. berus, nearly as large as the nasal shield; its horizontal diameter equal to its distance from the posterior or anterior border of the nostril, its vertical diameter equal to or a little less than its distance from the mouth. Length of tail seven and a half to nine times in total length in males, eight to ten times in females. Head-Shields.—Rostral as deep as broad or a little deeper than broad, just visible from above, and in contact with a single apical shield. Distinct frontal and (usually) parietal shields, the former once and two-thirds to twice and one-third as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of the snout, usually longer than the parietals; the latter Scales in twenty-one (very rarely nineteen) rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 130 to 148 in males, Coloration.—As in V. ursinii, the sexes are alike in coloration. European specimens (Plate XII.) are very similar to V. ursinii, except that the labial shields are markedly dark-edged and speckled or spotted with brown or black. The dorsal band or series of spots is dark brown, edged with blackish; the ground colour of the middle of the back and of the scales of the two outer rows on each side is yellowish, of the sides (four rows of scales) greyish-brown with two or three series of dark brown spots; two dark ?-shaped markings on the head; a dark postocular streak, extending or not to the side of the neck. The lower parts are whitish or pale greyish, with blackish dots, of which there is a series of larger ones along each side of the belly. The tip of the tail is never yellow. Central Asian specimens are of a pale yellowish sand-colour, with a brown, dark-edged dorsal zigzag band or series of spots and two series of small spots on the sides. Belly whitish, dotted or spotted with black, or uniform blackish. Size.—23 inches is the length of the largest specimen examined. Distribution.—In Europe V. renardi, which has long been confounded with V. berus, is abundant in the district of Uralsk, in the steppe around Sarepta, in Crimea, and it is also found in Cis-Caucasia and Habits.—Nothing has been published concerning the habits of this snake, except that it is more sensitive to cold than V. berus and does not appear before the middle of April, retiring to its winter-quarters in the beginning of October. The food consists of small mammals and lizards. Reproduction.—Pairs in May, and brings forth five to seven young in August, these young at birth measuring about 51/2 inches. 23. Vipera berus, LinnÆus The Northern Viper, or Adder Form.—Short and stout. Snout flat above, rarely slightly concave, the upper contour broadly rounded or truncate in front, the canthus well marked, sometimes slightly raised, the loreal region nearly vertical. Eye as a rule smaller in females than in males, as large or nearly as large as the nasal shield; its vertical diameter equals or a little exceeds its distance from the mouth. Length of tail five and a half to nine times in total length in males, eight to ten and three-quarter times in females. Head-Shields.—Rostral as deep as broad or slightly broader than deep, rarely once and one-third as deep as broad, not or but scarcely visible from above. In addition to the supraoculars, three large shields, the frontal and the parietals, are as a rule present on the top of the head. Frontal as long as broad or a little longer than broad, rarely much longer than broad, once and a half to twice and a half as broad as the supraocular, from which it is as a rule separated by one to four shields, as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the rostral, as long as or a little shorter than the parietals. Parietals usually in contact with the frontal and separated from the supraoculars by small shields, but sometimes in contact with both, or separated from the frontal. Exceptionally, in specimens from Great Britain, Germany, and Austria, the parietals, or the frontal and the parietals, are broken up into scales, and this is more frequently the case in specimens from North-Western Spain (var. seoanei). Upper surface of snout bordered by six (rarely by five or four) small shields, viz., two apicals (rarely one), and on each side two canthals, Scales in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or twenty-three) rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 132 to 150 (usually 137 to 147) in males, 132 to 158 (usually 140 to 150) in females; anal entire; subcaudals 32 to 46 (usually 35 to 40) in males, 24 to 38 (usually 28 to 33) in females. Whitish or pale grey specimens, with black belly and jet black dorsal markings (Plate XII.), are males. Brown and brick-red specimens, with the markings of a more or less dark brown or red, are females. There are also brown, reddish-brown or olive males with the markings of a deep black, and grey males with brown markings. A very pretty colour variety, which affects only females, is olive with brick-red band and spots. Some males, just before exuviation, have the lower surface of a pale greyish-blue (Coluber cÆruleus, Sheppard), with the outer ends of the shields black. Specimens with yellowish-white chin and throat, which may be tinged with red, are females; males have the throat black, or whitish with the scales spotted or edged with black. Exceptional females occur (in Carniola) which in this respect resemble the males. The markings vary considerably. Those on the back usually consist of a wavy or zigzag longitudinal band, flanked on each side with a series of spots corresponding to its sinuses; but this band may be partly or even entirely broken up into rhomboidal or transversely oval spots, or, losing its indentations, form a straight stripe edged on each side with a yellowish The belly and the lower surface of the tail vary from grey or brown to bluish, blackish-grey, or black, the sides usually dotted or spotted with whitish; sometimes, especially in females, the belly is dark grey, each shield with a white posterior border which is broken up by a series of small roundish black spots. The end of the tail is often yellowish, bright yellow, The iris is usually coppery red, more rarely golden suffused with brown. Black specimens occur, more or less frequently, all over the habitat of this species, and are often referred to as V. prester, LinnÆus. A distinction has to be made between individuals which are black through darkening of the ground colour, and such as are thus coloured through expansion and confluence of the markings. The latter are males, and among them we may find intermediate stages showing how this melanism is brought about; in one case the black of the back is separated from the black of the sides by a narrow light brown wavy stripe, the remains of the ground colour. When, as in all females, and occasionally in males, the black is the result of a gradual darkening of the ground colour, the typical markings may still be detected under certain lights. Some specimens (from Schneeberg, Lower Austria) are black, with scattered golden dots, or of a dark mahogany brown speckled with yellowish. In nearly all the black specimens at least a few dots of whitish are visible on the lips, and of yellow under the end of the tail. Most of the variations enumerated above occur irrespective of the geographical distribution. Two forms, however, deserve to be regarded as ill-defined local races: the var. seoanei, Lataste, from North-Western Size.—Vipera berus is said to reach very exceptionally a length of 2 feet 11 inches. The largest specimen in the British Museum (from Belgium) measures 2 feet 31/2 inches: the largest British specimen 2 feet 3 inches. Both these specimens are females. The largest male measures 2 feet 2 inches. Distribution.—Vipera berus ranges over the whole of Northern Europe, to the extreme north of Scotland, and the sixty-seventh degree in Scandinavia, and right across Northern Asia as far east as the island of Saghalien. It is generally distributed in Great Britain, occurring also on the Isles of Arran, Islay, Skye, Lewis, and Mull, rare or absent in some districts, common in others. Its distribution in Central and Southern Europe is irregular. In Habits.—As we see from the above sketch of its distribution, the Adder generally avoids the hotter parts of Europe; when found in the plain in the South, as in Italy, it dwells in marshy localities, and Bonaparte called it Marasso palustre (Marsh Viper) in opposition to his Marasso alpino, Vipera ursinii. In the North, however, it usually selects in preference dry moors, sandy heaths, and hills well exposed to the sun, in which, although to a certain extent a nocturnal reptile, it delights to bask. Its food is very varied: weasels, mice, voles, shrews, moles, birds, lizards, slow-worms, frogs, salamanders, large slugs, have been found in the stomach, and the very young feed also on insects and worms. Of irascible temper as a rule, Adders are very ready to bite when fresh caught, but instances are known of their becoming quite tame in captivity, allowing themselves to be handled. As a rule they refuse food in captivity, but some have been known to live for as long as five years, being fed on lizards. Accidents from their bite, although seldom heard of in this country, are of frequent occurrence in France and in Germany, where many cases of fatal results on people have been recorded. It is probable that exceptionally some individuals pair late in the summer or in the autumn. There is a trustworthy record, by Eiffe, of three pregnant females having been caught near Hamburg on March 12, 1882, one of them giving birth to young on the following day. Dicephalous young have occasionally been observed. One 6 inches long was found crawling in a field near Hornburg in Germany in October, 1895, and, having been kept alive for some time, was observed to hiss and open the two mouths alternately when taking up a defensive attitude. Another similar monster, from Cornwall, is reported to have been sent alive to the London Zoological Gardens in 1854. 24. Vipera aspis, LinnÆus The Asp Viper Form.—Rather more elongate than in the preceding. Snout flat above, more or less distinctly turned up at the end, with sharp, not or but very slightly Head-Shields.—Rostral deeper than broad, its width two-thirds to seven-eighths its depth, extending to the upper edge of the snout. As a rule, with the exception of the large supraocular, the upper surface of the head is covered with small, subimbricate scales, which are smooth, very rarely feebly keeled, between the eyes Scales in twenty-one or twenty-three (rarely nineteen or twenty-five) rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row more or less distinctly keeled, rarely perfectly smooth. Ventral shields 134 to 158 (usually 143 to 153) in males, 141 to 169 (usually 145 to 157) in females; anal entire; subcaudals 32 to 49 (usually 37 to 45) in males, 30 to 43 (usually 32 to 38) in females; the terminal caudal shield is sometimes shorter and less spine-like than in V. berus, quite obtuse in some specimens. Coloration.—Grey, greyish-brown, brown, reddish-brown, coppery red, or orange, is the ground colour in individuals from the same district; in this respect sexual differences are less marked than in the preceding species, red or copper-coloured specimens being found in both sexes, and silvery white specimens do not seem ever to occur. In rare cases markings are entirely absent. In specimens from the greater part of France, Italy, and the Southern Tyrol (see Plate XIII.), the dark brown or black markings on the body are mostly in the form of narrow cross-bars, continuous across the back or broken on the vertebral line and often alternating with each other and with similar bars on the sides, thus producing a pattern not unlike that frequently found in Tropidonotus natrix; a narrow dark line The upper surface of the head may be devoid of any markings, or bear merely the two oblique dark streaks forming the branches of a ?; or a dark cross-bar may be present on the snout, followed or not by smaller spots or a pair of oblique streaks on the occiput; the ? on the back of the head may be united with the first cross-bar on the nape, and enclose a cordiform figure of the lighter ground colour. A light line sometimes borders the upper edge of the snout and the outer edge of the supraocular shield. A blackish band or a mere line extends obliquely from the eye to the first lateral spot; below this the upper lip is whitish, yellowish, or pinkish, with or without dark vertical bars on the sutures between the labial shields. The iris is golden or coppery red. The lower parts vary as much as the upper: A remarkable form of V. aspis, which some herpetologists would perhaps regard as entitled to rank as a species, is the var. hugyi, Schinz, from Calabria and Sicily. It is in some respects intermediate between V. aspis and V. latastii. The snout is rather more pointed than usual in the typical form, often, though not constantly, more strongly turned up at the end, and the canthus rostralis may be distinctly raised. Constantly two canthal shields, the second in contact with the supraocular. Ventral shields 134 to 148; subcaudals 30 to 43. Pale Specimens so completely intermediate between Vipera aspis and V. berus as to render their naming arbitrary are known from parts of France and Italy where the two species coexist, and are probably to be regarded as hybrids. Size.—The largest specimen examined (St. Sever, Landes, in the Lataste Collection) measures 2 feet 21/2 inches. It is a male. The largest female in the British Museum is 2 inches shorter. Distribution.—Vipera aspis is found over the whole of France south of a line connecting the departments Loire-InfÉrieure, Orne, Seine-et-Marne, and Meurthe-et-Moselle, and ascends the Pyrenees to the altitude of 7,250 feet. In Germany it is known from Lorraine and the Black Forest, in Switzerland from the western and southern parts, up to 5,000 feet on the northern side of the Alps. It occurs also in Austria, in the Southern Tyrol and in the Karst, and is distributed over the whole of Italy and Sicily, reaching an altitude of 9,700 feet in the Alps. Most of the specimens from the western parts of the Balkan Peninsula which have been referred to this species belong, apparently, to V. berus, var. Habits.—This Viper shows a predilection for hot and dry localities. It is both diurnal and nocturnal, and does not seem to wander far from its hole in a rock or in the earth. It is slow in its movements, but very irascible, and innumerable accidents, in some cases fatal to man, are caused yearly in many parts of France, where it is extremely abundant. Its food consists principally of small mammals, young birds, and lizards, but the very young eat insects and worms. In France it retires into its winter-quarters at the end of October or in November, and numerous specimens often congregate in the same hole; it resumes its activity towards the end of March or the beginning of April, sometimes as early as the end of February. In rare cases it will even leave its retreat in the middle of winter, to bask in the sun. In captivity it long retains its savage temper, and usually refuses all food. Reproduction.—Vipera aspis pairs in April and May; the pair are entwined in each other’s coils. The young, four to eighteen in number, but rarely more than ten, are born in August or September, and measure 7 or 8 inches. Several cases of dicephaly in young specimens have been described. Lataste’s Viper Form.—Heavier than in the preceding. Head similar, but snout more pointed and loreal region slanting towards the lip, well visible when the head is viewed from above. The extent to which the snout is turned up at the end varies considerably, sometimes similar to certain specimens of V. aspis, sometimes forming an appendage which is only a little less developed than in V. ammodytes. Length of tail six and a half to seven and a half times in total length in males, seven and a half to nine times in females. Head-Shields.—Rostral once and a half to twice as deep as broad, nearly reaching the tip of the rostral wart. Upper surface of head covered with small, smooth or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, among which a slightly enlarged frontal, or a frontal and a Scales in twenty-one rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 125 to 146 in males, 135 to 147 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 35 to 45 in males, 32 to 38 in females. Coloration.—Grey or brown above, the back often paler than the sides, with a broad darker, usually black-edged, wavy or zigzag band along the spine, and a lateral series of spots (Plate XIII.); the band sometimes replaced by large rhombic or transversely oval Size.—This Viper is not known to exceed a length of 2 feet. Distribution.—Locally distributed over the greater part of Spain and Portugal, as far north as Burgos and Barcelona. Also found in Morocco near Tangier, and in Algeria near Bona and Guyotville. Habits.—Lataste’s Viper lives in stony and arid districts, and also in forests. The food consists chiefly of small mammals, but remains of a scorpion have been found in the stomach of an adult, and of a centipede in that of a young. According to Graells, this Viper easily climbs low trees in search of young birds, five of which have been found in the stomach of one specimen. The bite is believed to be less dangerous than that of V. aspis, and rarely causes the death of man and domestic animals. 26. Vipera ammodytes, LinnÆus The Sand-Viper, or Long-Nosed Viper This species may be divided into several geographical forms. The typical form will be described first. Head-Shields.—Rostral usually broader than deep. Naso-rostral (rarely divided into two) usually reaching the canthus rostralis, and extending considerably higher up than the upper border of the rostral. Rostral appendage covered with ten to seventeen scales, arranged in three (rarely two or four) transverse series between the rostral shield and the apex. Upper surface of head covered with small smooth or faintly keeled, subimbricate scales, among which a feebly enlarged frontal shield or a frontal and a pair of parietals are rarely distinguishable; when present, the frontal is separated from the supraocular by two series of scales; on the vertex five to eight series of scales separate the supraoculars. Two (rarely three) Scales in twenty-one or twenty-three (rarely twenty-five) rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 143 to 161 in males, 147 to 160 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 27 to 40 in males, 24 to 37 in females. Coloration.—Grey, pinkish-grey, brown, yellowish-brown, or brick red above, with a more or less distinct wavy or zigzag black or brown, usually black-edged, band along the back, or a series of large rhombs connected on the median line, with or without a lateral series of dark spots; specimens with the markings of an intense black are males (Plate XIV.). Head with or without dark markings, very variable in disposition, sometimes forming a ? on the occiput, or a lyre-shaped figure confluent with the dorsal The following varieties are important geographical forms occurring in Europe: Var. montandoni, Boulenger: Naso-rostral shield never reaching the canthus rostralis nor the summit of the rostral shield, which is deeper than broad (once and one-seventh to once and a half); rostral appendage clad with ten to fourteen scales, in three (rarely two or four) transverse series between the rostral shield and the apex. Scales in twenty-one rows. Ventral shields 149 to 158; subcaudals 30 to 38. A more or less distinct dark blotch on the lower lip, involving five to seven labial shields without complete interruption. Lower surface of end of tail yellow. Var. meridionalis, Boulenger: Naso-rostral shield never reaching the canthus rostralis, and but rarely extending higher up than the upper border of the rostral, which is often as deep as broad or a little deeper than broad; rostral appendage clad with fourteen to twenty scales, in four or five (rarely three) transverse series between the rostral shield and the apex. Supraciliary edge usually more prominent than in the typical form, sometimes slightly angular. Scales in twenty-one rows (very rarely twenty-three). Ventral shields 133 to 147; subcaudals 24 to 35. Size.—This Viper exceptionally attains a length of 3 feet. The largest male in the British Museum measures 2 feet 6 inches, the largest female 2 feet 4 inches. In V. berus females grow to a larger size than males; in this species, as in V. aspis, the reverse appears to be the rule. Hybrid.—A female specimen, presumed to be a hybrid between V. berus and V. ammodytes, was obtained by Captain Veith in 1902 in Carinthia, in a locality where both these species occur together. The shape of the head is exactly that of a typical V. aspis, the snout distinctly turned up at the end, but without wart or scaly appendage, the raised portion being covered by the apex of the rostral shield and three apical shields. The rostral shield, which is a little deeper than broad (5:4), extends above the level of the slightly raised canthus rostralis, which bears two shields, the second in contact with the supraocular. The naso-rostral extends to the canthus rostralis, where it joins the first canthal and the lateral apical shield; one series of scales between the nasal shield and the preoculars. On the upper surface of the head the snout is covered with fifteen subimbricate smooth scales, in addition to the canthals and apicals. A frontal shield and a pair of parietals are well developed, Grey-brown above, with a reddish-brown or mahogany-coloured zigzag vertebral band and a lateral series of paler reddish-brown spots; temporal band ill-defined in front; no markings on the upper surface of the head; lips pinkish, with a few reddish-brown spots. Ventral shields pale brownish, finely speckled or powdered with blackish, and with small whitish spots on the free edge and reddish brown spots on the sides. Tail orange red below. Iris fire red. Total length 2 feet 21/3 inches; tail 22/3 inches. Distribution.—The typical form is known from Northern Venetia, Austria-Hungary (Styria, Carinthia, Southern Tyrol, Carniola, Illyria, Istria, Croatia, Slavonia, and eastward through Southern Hungary to Transylvania), Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Servia. In the Alps up to 1,300 feet, in the Balkan Peninsula up to 7,500 feet. The var. montandoni inhabits Roumania and Bulgaria. The specimens from Transcaucasia constitute a further variety (var. transcaucasiana, Boulenger), agreeing with the var. montandoni in the rostral scutellation and in the number of ventral shields (150 to 156), but differing in the markings on the back; these consist of dark bars or alternating paired dark spots, as in the typical form of V. aspis. The dark and light markings on the lower lip are as in the typical V. ammodytes, and the lower surface of the tail is pale yellow or greenish towards the end. Habits.—Notwithstanding its name ammodytes, this Viper is by no means restricted to sandy localities; on the contrary, it shows a predilection for dry stony hills with low vegetation, and has often been found climbing bushes. It avoids thick forest, but occurs on the edges of woods and in clearings, as well as on the borders of roads through woods. In the cooler regions of the mountains, which it ascends to a considerable altitude, it is essentially diurnal, leaving its retreat only when the sun shines; but in warm localities it is stated to be principally nocturnal, appearing in numbers by moonlight. The length of its period of hibernation depends entirely on the climate, but when the winter is mild it may be seen about in midwinter whenever the sun shines. The poison of The food consists of small mammals and birds, and also of lizards. V. ammodytes does much better in captivity than its European congeners, and takes food more readily. The hissing is louder than in V. berus and V. aspis, and it is often produced, on the approach of man, by specimens lying in such perfect concealment that their presence would not otherwise be suspected; this habit, like the rattling of the Crotalus, is evidently detrimental to the species in its relation to man. This species is extremely abundant in some parts of Austria, and over 7,000 specimens were killed in a district of Southern Styria in the course of two years (1892, 1893). According to Werner, it is the commonest of all snakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Reproduction.—Pairing takes place in the spring, sooner or later according to altitudes, and the young, five to fourteen in number, are born in August. 27. Vipera lebetina, LinnÆus The Blunt-Nosed Viper, or Kufi Form.—Short and heavy. Snout rounded, obtuse, usually with well-marked canthus, and the loreal region slanting towards the mouth. Eye small, its Head-Shields.—Rostral as deep as broad, a little broader than deep, or slightly deeper than broad, reaching or nearly reaching the upper surface of the snout, and in contact with two or three apical shields. Upper surface of head covered with small subimbricate scales, which are all more or less distinctly keeled, or, rarely, smooth on the snout and forehead; seven to twelve longitudinal series of scales between the eyes (supraoculars included); two to four canthal shields, of which the anterior is the largest, and may be regarded as a supranasal. Supraocular narrow, usually broken up into two or more small shields. Twelve to eighteen scales round the eye; two or three series of scales between the eye and the labials; two or three vertical series of scales separate the preoculars from the nasal, which is single and often strongly hollowed out, Scales in twenty-three to twenty-seven rows, usually twenty-five, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 151 to 177 in males, 153 to 180 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 42 to 51 in males, 38 to 49 in females. Coloration.—Very variable. The typical form, which alone is represented in Europe, and was originally described from Cyprus, is grey, greyish-buff, or pale brown, above, with two dorsal series of darker spots, which may stand in pairs, alternate, or unite to form cross-bars, and a lateral series of large dark spots or bars. A more or less distinct dark band on each side of the head, passing through the eye and often extending to the neck; a dark bar or triangular spot below the eye, and usually another below the nostril. Lower parts pinkish-white, powdered with grey-brown, with or without dark brown spots; end of tail yellow. The ground colour of the young is pink or flesh-colour. In specimens from desert sandy regions in Asia and North Africa the markings may be very indistinct, the snake being of a nearly uniform pale buff. In the var. mauritanica, Guichenot, from Morocco Size.—This species, the largest of European Vipers, grows to a length of 41/2 feet. Distribution.—The European habitat of V. lebetina is restricted to the Cyclades, where it is not uncommon on the island of Tinos, and appears to be found also on Kimoli. It is common on Cyprus, where it is called Kufi, or Deaf Snake, and extends from Syria and Asia Minor through Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Northern Baluchistan, to Afghanistan and Cashmere. It is further found on the Atlas of Morocco and Algeria, near Oran and Bona, and in Tunisia. Its reported occurrence in Egypt has not been confirmed by recent investigations. Habits.—According to M. Doumergue—who has had ample opportunities of observing this Viper near Oran, where it is common—it is a nocturnal reptile, rarely moving about in the daytime. It inhabits rocky localities, where there is brushwood, and vineyards. During the day it remains sluggish under large stones. It is most frequently met with in April and May. The food consists principally of mammals up to the size of a rabbit. Reproduction.—According to Doumergue’s observations in Algeria, the young, up to thirteen in number, are born in May and June. Genus ANCISTRODON, Palisot de Beauvois Head distinct from neck, its upper surface covered with large shields, as in the normal ColubridÆ; a loreal pit; eye moderate or small, with vertical pupil. Body moderately elongate or short. Scales keeled (or smooth), with apical pits. Tail moderate or short. This genus is distributed over nearly the whole of Asia, the eastern parts of the United States of America, and Mexico and Central America. One of the Asiatic species just penetrates into South-Eastern Europe, and is the sole representative of the CrotalinÆ in this part of the world. Pallas’s Pit-Viper Form.—Moderately elongate. Head subtriangular, flat or slightly concave above, swollen in the temporal region, very distinct from neck; snout rounded or obtusely pointed, slightly turned up at the end, with obtuse canthus and vertical or slightly oblique loreal region; eye rather small. Tail seven to eight and a half times in the total length. Head-Shields.—Rostral as deep as broad or slightly broader than deep, just visible from above. A pair of internasals and a pair of larger prefrontals. Frontal as broad as the supraocular, as long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout, as long as or a little shorter than the rather short parietals. Supraocular extending beyond the vertical of the posterior border of the eye. Loreal pit between three shields, separated from the labials. Nostril between two nasals, the posterior of which Scales sharply keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-three rows. Ventral shields 149 to 174; anal entire; subcaudals 31 to 44 pairs. Coloration.—Pale yellowish-grey, greyish-brown, or reddish, sometimes greenish in young specimens, with transverse series of darker spots or with more or less regular dark bars with serrated edges across the back (Plate XIV.); these bars may be narrower than the interspaces between them, or so large as to cause the back to appear brown with light cross-bars; the bars sometimes broken up on the vertebral line, and the two halves alternating. The sides usually paler and bearing two alternating longitudinal series of small spots, the lower of which are usually darker, and sometimes extend on the outer ends of the ventral shields. Head pale above, with a dark spot on the middle of the snout, a cross-bar or a pair of spots between the eyes, a spot or short band on each side of the parietal region, and a horseshoe-shaped band on the occiput, the branches of which are more or less produced on the nape; all these markings sometimes confluent. A broad, dark, light-edged band on the temple. Lips whitish, speckled Size.—This species rarely reaches a length of 29 inches. The largest specimen in the British Museum measures only 19 inches. Distribution.—From the north and east coasts of the Caspian Sea, across Central Asia to the Upper Yenissei, as far north as 51°. In Europe it is only known from two arid tracts between the Volga and the Ural, near the Caspian Sea, viz., the Saltan-Murat desert and the Induski hills. Habits.—Nothing has been published on the habits of this snake, but they are probably similar to those of its near and more eastern relative, A. blomhoffi, Schlegel, which inhabits China and Japan. A. blomhoffi is said to be more or less nocturnal, although showing a predilection for localities well exposed to the sun. It is ovoviviparous. The symptoms of its bite, which is rarely fatal to man, are the same as in the Vipers. All the species of Ancistrodon, so far as they have been observed, are in the habit of raising and vibrating the tail, like the Rattlesnakes, when coiling themselves up in a defensive attitude. |