  15. MAN. The only production of the human body which appears to be useful in a commercial view, is the hair. Human hair, for the purpose of being made into wigs, and ornamental head-dresses, is imported into this country from the Continent, and chiefly from Germany. We also import hair from China, but the latter is generally of very dark colour. On the Continent this article is almost wholly collected by pedlars, who travel through the different countries, and carry trinkets and other articles for sale, and to exchange for it. When, some years ago, long hair was much more fashionable than it is at present, great numbers of young women in Germany suffered their hair to grow, and had it cut, from time to time, as a source of emolument. The notion that long hair is frequently cut from the heads of persons after they are dead is totally unfounded, since the uncertainty of such supply would alone render it impracticable. The hair that is used for men's wigs is almost wholly children's hair, no other being in general considered sufficiently fine for this purpose. The value of hair is from five to twelve shillings per ounce, according to the quality, length, or colour. Before it can be used it is well rubbed with dry sand, and afterwards boiled, to clean it. Such as is intended So great was formerly the demand for long hair, and so extravagant the price for which it was frequently sold, that a mode was invented of stretching it to nearly double its original length. This was effected by fastening the ends of the hair to the opposite sides of a vessel, placing a heavy weight across the middle, and applying heat underneath. As the heat softened the hair, the weight pressed it down, and extended it. But this project was found not to answer, as the hair lost all its quality, and could never be used but when mixed with other hair, and even then the fraud was discoverable by the stretched hair gradually shrinking nearly to its original length. In lawyers' and judges' wigs horse-hair and goats'-hair are frequently used, to give stiffness and form to the different parts. 16. APES, BABOONS, and MONKEYS (Simia), are all animals of hot climates, none of them except the Barbury ape (Simia inuus) being ever found wild in Europe. They are distinguished by having four front teeth in each jaw, and all their feet formed like hands. LinnÆus, although he has arranged these animals under one tribe, has characterised the apes by their entire want of tails; the baboons by having short tails; and the monkeys by having long ones. The tails of some of the monkeys, particularly those of South America, are so formed, that the animals are able to coil them round any object so firmly as to afford them a support in, apparently, the most perilous situations. Several of the monkeys have pouches within their cheeks, in which they collect their food previously to its being swallowed. The chief, perhaps the only, use to which these animals are applied, is as food. The pigmy apes are caught by the Arabs, and fattened for this purpose, as we would fatten sheep. Whilst Dampier was on the coast of Desmarchias, in his account of Cayenne, says that the flesh of the howling monkeys, which are peculiarly numerous in the woods of that county, is a white and very palatable food, not indeed so fat, but in general as good, as mutton. Both the negroes and the colonists of Surinam occasionally subsist on monkeys. Yet, however delicate this kind of food may be, it is extremely repugnant to the feelings of an European to partake of what, when skinned, has so much the form and general appearance of a human being as these animals. The woods of nearly all hot climates abound in monkeys, the species of which are extremely numerous. They feed almost wholly on fruit, grain, roots, and other vegetable productions. It would be inconsistent with the plan of the present work to enter into any detail relative to their habits of life. We can only say, generally, that few animals are known to be more active, mischievous, and enterprising than these. They usually live in immense troops, and commit great depredations in cultivated grounds near the forests where they reside; some of them continuing on watch, to give alarm in case of danger, whilst others are engaged in pilfering and carrying off the plunder to their habitations. 17. The BATS (Vespertilio) constitute a very singular tribe of quadrupeds, which have the toes of their fore-feet extremely long, and connected together by a very thin and There are near thirty ascertained species of bats, six of which are occasionally found in England. Some of them are smaller than a mouse, but others are so large that their extended membranes measure betwixt three and four feet in width. The latter are found only in torrid climates. As all the European bats feed wholly on insects, which they catch during their flight, there can be no doubt but, in this respect, they are extremely serviceable to mankind. They devour myriads of night-flying moths, the caterpillars of which would otherwise prove injurious to our gardens, orchards, and fields. The larger kinds, such as the vampyre and spectre bats, the former of which are found in incredible numbers in the islands of the eastern seas, and the latter on the continent of South America, are not unfrequently used as food. At a particular season of the year, they become fat; and though, whilst alive, their smell is excessively rank and unpleasant, they are then said to be delicious eating, and, in flavour, somewhat to resemble rabbits. The inhabitants of New Caledonia weave their hair into various ornamental articles, and plait it, with the stalks and leaves of a kind of grass, into tassels for their clubs. ORDER II.—BRUTA.18. The LONG and SHORT-TAILED MANIS (Manis tetradactyla, and pentadactyla, Fig. 18) are very singular quadrupeds, with a long muzzle, small mouth destitute of teeth, and their body covered with scales. They are distinguished from each other by the former having a very long tail and four toes, and the latter a short tail and five toes. These animals are natives of India, Africa, and China; and are from four to seven or eight feet in length. From the scales with which their bodies are clad, and the general shape of the tail, they might be mistaken, at first sight, for lizards. The under part of their bodies, however, is clad with hair, which is not the case in any species of lizard. By the negroes of Africa both the species of manis are much sought for, and on account, chiefly, of their flesh as food. There is, however, some difficulty in procuring them, as they live in obscure places, in the midst of rocks, woods, and morasses. When discovered they are unable to escape by flight, and, in self-defence, roll themselves into a ball, and erect their scales; exposing an armed surface on every side, impenetrable by the teeth of dogs, but easily assailable by the spears of the negroes. In their habits these animals are gentle and innoxious, and subsist only on insects, of different kinds. Their scales, which are sufficiently hard to strike fire when struck against flint, are applied to many useful purposes. 19. The ARMADILLOS (Dasypus, Fig. 19) are a tribe of quadrupeds, which have grinding teeth, but no canine nor front-teeth; their bodies are covered with a crustaceous shell. There are ten species, all of which are inhabitants of Brazil and other parts of South America, and are from eight or ten inches to three feet in length. The species are distinguished from each other chiefly by the number of flexible bands which extend across their back. Their flesh is a favourite food with the inhabitants of South America. Of their shells these people make baskets, boxes, and numerous ornamental articles, which they paint and adorn in various ways; and the shells, reduced to powder, are sometimes administered internally as a medicine. It is customary to hunt armadillos with dogs that are trained for the purpose. They reside in burrows which they dig in the ground, into these they endeavour to retreat when pursued: or, if at too great a distance, they attempt to dig new ones before they are overtaken. When in their holes, they are either smoked out, or are expelled by pouring in water. The moment they are seized they roll themselves together, and will not again extend unless placed near a hot fire. 20. The RHINOCEROS.—There are two species of rhinoceros, one of which has one, and the other two horns, situated on the nose, and three hoofs on each foot. These are animals of large size and bulky form, and live in swamps, morasses, and forests, in wet situations, within the torrid regions. The single-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis, Fig. 1.) which is generally five or six feet in height, is found in Africa, in the central and southern parts of Asia, and in the islands of Sumatra and Ceylon. Its skin is blackish, naked, extremely thick, covered with a kind of warts, and disposed into large folds on different parts of the body. The two-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros bicornis) is a native of Africa, and has a thick and dark-coloured skin, but not arranged in folds like that of the preceding species. The skin of the rhinoceros is an article in great demand in several countries of Asia and Africa. It is manufactured into the best and hardest leather that can be imagined; and targets or shields are made of it, that are proof against even the stroke of a scimitar. In this state the colour of the skin is variegated; and when polished it is nearly similar in appearance to tortoise-shell. The inhabitants of Surat make very elegant targets of these hides, which they stud with silver-headed nails. The Hottentots make chanboks or whips of them. In Sumatra, Ceylon, and some parts of India, the flesh of the rhinoceros is an useful food. The horns, which are from twelve to fifteen inches in length, and three to six inches in diameter, are much esteemed amongst the Mahometans, not on account of any real utility, but from their being considered an antidote against poison. Good-sized horns, if purchased at three or four pounds sterling each, may be sold in the East Indies, with considerable profit, to the Arabian merchants. They are made into drinking cups; and The savage tribes of southern Africa, and even the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope, set a high value on the dried blood of the rhinoceros, to which they ascribe great medicinal virtues. The hoofs, and even the teeth, are also used medicinally. Respecting the rhinoceros it may not be improper to remark, that, although naturally of a quiet and inoffensive disposition, his strength is such, that few animals are able to contend with him; and that the thickness of his hide is so great, as in several parts to be impenetrable even by a musket ball. These animals feed entirely on vegetable food, but particularly on the leaves and tender branches of shrubs. Their horns are not fixed into the bone of the head, like those of other quadrupeds, but only into the skin. They appear loose whilst the animals are in a quiescent state; but when the animals are irritated, they become fixed and immoveable. 21. The ELEPHANT (Elephas, Fig. 20), the only known animal of the tribe to which it belongs, is an inhabitant of the warmer regions of Asia and Africa, and is distinguished by having two long tusks projecting from the upper jaw, and the snout lengthened into a long and flexible trunk. The general height of the elephant is nine or ten feet. Its skin is of dingy brown colour, and nearly destitute of hair. The tusks are much longer in the male than the female. Throughout the whole of the East Indies, as well as in several other parts of Asia, the elephant is an animal of indispensable utility. When tamed and reduced to a state of submission, he becomes so tractable as to obey all the orders of his keeper. Elephants are formed in a particular manner for the service of man in hot climates. They are employed both as beasts of draft and burthen; and one elephant is supposed equal to as much work as six horses. They are conducted by a man, who sits on their neck, and who employs as a weapon an iron rod, hooked at the end, with which he pricks the animal to urge him forward, or turn him in any direction that may be required. Almost all the articles that are transported from place to place in India are conveyed by elephants. They bend their knees to accommodate those who mount them: and, with their trunks, they even assist the persons by whom they are loaded. Before the invention of gunpowder, elephants were much employed by the Indians in their wars. They are now chiefly used for the purposes of labour and parade. They require much attention, and are generally fed with rice, either raw or boiled, and mixed with water, of which each elephant will devour daily near a hundred pounds' weight, besides a certain quantity of fresh herbage which is procured for him. They are led to the water thrice a day, both to drink and bathe; and their daily consumption of water for drink has been estimated at forty five gallons each. The modes in which elephants are caught and domesticated are curious and interesting. In a wild state they inhabit, in large troops, the thick and boundless forests of Asia and Africa. To obtain the single male elephant, it is customary, in some parts of India, to employ females, which are trained for that particular purpose. When the hunters have discovered a male elephant that suits them, they conduct four of the When a herd of elephants are to be secured, a party consisting sometimes of 500 persons are employed. These, by fire and noises, drive them into certain enclosures, formed for the purpose; an operation which generally occupies several days. These enclosures are three in number, and communicate with each other by narrow openings or gateways. The opening of the outer enclosure is disguised, as much as possible, by bamboos and branches of trees stuck into the ground, so as to make it look like a natural jungle. It is not without much difficulty that the leader can be induced to enter: but, after he has passed, all the others immediately follow. There is still greater difficulty in inducing them to pass into the second and third enclosures: and lastly, one by one, into the roomee, an outlet about sixty feet in length, and so narrow that the animals are unable to turn round in it. Here, after in vain exerting all their powers to break down the fences and escape, they are all, in succession, secured by ropes that are fastened round their legs. To domesticate the animals, they are now each placed under a keeper, who is appointed to attend and instruct them. After the elephant has for some days been supplied with food and water, the keeper ventures to approach him. He strokes and pats him with his hand, at the same time speaking to him in a soothing voice; and after a little while the beast begins to know and obey him. By degrees the keeper becomes familiar; he ventures to mount upon his back from Wild male elephants are frequently hunted and killed, both in Asia and Africa, on account of their tusks, which, under the name of ivory, are a very important article of traffic. The temptation held out, at the Cape of Good Hope, to this dangerous pursuit, in which many of the hunters lose their lives, is the payment of a guilder per pound for the tusks; and these weigh from 30 to 130 pounds each. For the whitest, smoothest, and most compact ivory that is known, we are, however, indebted to the island of Ceylon. The whole quantity of ivory exported from the Cape of Good Hope in four years, ending in 1804, amounted to 5981 pounds; and the average annual quantity vended at the East India Company's sales from 1804 to 1808 was twenty-six tons. The principal consumption of ivory is for making ornamental utensils, mathematical instruments, boxes, combs, dice, and an infinite variety of toys. This substance is also used for painting miniatures upon, for which, however, it goes through a peculiar preparation. It is capable of being stained of various and very beautiful colours. The shavings of ivory, like those of hartshorn, may, by boiling, be converted into a jelly; and they possess similar virtues. Bone is frequently substituted for ivory, but it is easily known by its pores, which are not to be seen in ivory, and by its wanting the beautiful white veins or marks by which ivory is distinguished. The flesh of the elephant is eaten by the negroes of Africa; and the ancients attributed many medicinal qualities to the blood and the trunk. 22. The GREAT MORSE, or ARCTIC WALRUS (Trichechus rosmarus), is a marine quadruped of enormous These animals inhabit the sea near the northern parts of the coast of America, and feed on sea-weeds, corallines, and shellfish. They are sometimes nearly eighteen feet in length, and ten or twelve in circumference. Their skin is of dark colour, and thinly covered with short brownish hair. They have small eyes, and small circular orifices in place of external ears. We are informed that these animals, under the name of horse-whales, were objects of pursuit so early as even the reign of King Alfred, and on account chiefly of their tusks and oil. The former are a close-grained kind of ivory, and weigh from ten to near thirty pounds each; and the latter, which is equally valuable with that of whale oil, is in such abundance that the body of each animal yields nearly half a tun. This oil is burned in lamps, is used for the same purposes as whale-oil, and even eaten by the inhabitants of Greenland with their food. Of the skins of the arctic walrus the Greenlanders make a thick and strong harness for their sledges and carriages; and they sometimes twist narrow strips of them together to form cables. They constitute an important article of export from the coast of Labrador. The tendons of these animals are capable of being split and used as thread. So numerous were arctic walruses formerly in the northern seas, that we are informed of the English, in 1706, having killed, on Cherry Island (betwixt Norway and Greenland) near eight hundred of them in six hours; and that, in 1708, they killed nine hundred in seven hours. Of late years, however, their numbers are much decreased. ORDER III.—FERÆ.23. The COMMON SEAL (Phoca vitulina, Fig. 2) is a marine quadruped with a large and round head, no external This animal is found on almost all the northern shores of Britain; and is generally from four to six feet in length. Its colour varies, being dusky, whitish, grey, black, or spotted. Seals are eagerly pursued by the inhabitants of nearly all the northern countries of Europe. They are found in hollow rocks or caverns near the sea, and are killed with guns, clubs, or spears. The usual season for hunting them is during the months of October and November. The flesh of seals is much esteemed by the Greenlanders; and their skins are extremely serviceable. These are converted into clothing; into coverings for beds, houses, and boats; and into thongs, and straps of every description. The Americans fill them with air and make a kind of rafts of them. The fat yields a clear and much sweeter oil than that obtained from whales, and is used by the Greenlanders in their lamps, and frequently also with their food. The fibres of the tendons are said to be a stronger and better substance for sewing with than either thread or silk. Before the introduction of iron the bones of seals were used for the points of weapons both for chase and war. The skins of the entrails are employed instead of glass in windows; and, sewed together, are formed into shirts and other under parts of dress. When the long and coarse hair of the seal is pulled off, a fine, short, silky, and somewhat fawn-coloured down is left, which in this country is a fashionable fur for ornamenting ladies' dresses. This fur woven with silk is also manufactured into shawls, which are of extremely soft and delicate texture. Seal skins, when tanned and properly dressed, are converted into a valuable leather for shoes and other uses. 24. The LEONINE SEAL, or SEA LION (Phoca jubata) is a marine quadruped which inhabits the shores of Kamschatka and Greenland, is sixteen or eighteen feet in The great quantity of oil which is yielded by these seals is the cause of their being pursued and killed, by the inhabitants of all countries on the shores of which they are found. The skins of the younger animals are made, in Greenland, into garments for women; and those of the old ones are used for beds. When the latter are freed from the hair, they are applied as coverings for boats and houses. They are also sometimes sewed together as bags to contain provision, and for other uses. The skins of the intestines are used for the same purposes as those of the common seal; and the teeth are adapted for the points of arrows and spears. There are numerous other species of seals, all of which are in some respects useful to mankind, and chiefly for the purposes which have been above enumerated. 25. The DOG (Canis familiaris) is an animal characterized by LinnÆus as having the tail recurved, and bent towards the left side of the body. Dogs are found in a wild state in Africa and South America. As an attached and faithful servant of man, the dog is equalled by no animal. Though destitute of the faculty of thought, he has all the ardour of sentiment. He is all zeal, warmth, and obedience; and, forgetful of injuries, he seeks only how he may gain the favour and affection of his master. During the night he guards the house, and, by the noise he makes, he gives notice of the approach of depredators. He also protects the property committed to his care, and secures it from being plundered. He directs the steps of the blind, and, in some instances, has even been instructed to pick up money, and put it into his master's hat. Being endowed with great strength and fleetness of foot, some kinds of dogs are trained to the chase, and But it is not only during his life that the dog is serviceable to mankind. After death his skin is converted, by the inhabitants of Greenland, into garments, and particularly into stockings. It is also used for the coverlets of beds. Dogs' skins in our own country are tanned, and applied to several useful purposes, as leather, and particularly for gloves and shoes. The hair of some kinds of dogs is so thick and matted that, like wool, it is capable of being converted into cloth. A small kind of King Charles's dog is mentioned by Dr. Anderson to have had long and soft hair, covering a finer sort, which might, with advantage, have been woven into shawls. He speaks of another kind which had a very thick fleece, much resembling that of some of the Lincolnshire sheep; and of a third kind with close frizzed wool, which was shorn annually and made into stockings. He, however, remarks that the finest hair he ever saw upon a dog, and which indeed for softness and gloss more resembled silk than hair, grew upon a very small kind of Maltese dog. This, if manufactured, might have been converted into shawls of uncommon softness and beauty. The fleece of a water dog, belonging to a farrier in the horse artillery, was manufactured into hats, and answered this purpose sufficiently well. Each fleece was sufficient for two hats, and was considered to be worth about twelve shillings. Disgusting as it may appear to us, the flesh of the dog is a favourite food in many countries. The Greenlanders eat it with avidity. In the markets of Canton, dogs are exposed for sale in the same manner as other animal food. The negroes of Africa prefer their flesh There are near thirty distinct and well ascertained varieties of the dog; of which fourteen are considered to be natives of our own island. 26. The SIBERIAN DOG is distinguished by having its ears erect, and the hair of its body and tail very long. To the inhabitants of many northern countries of the world, these dogs are of essential service. They are employed in drawing sledges over the frozen snow, five of them being yoked to each sledge, two and two, with the fifth in front as a leader. These sledges generally carry only one person each, who sits sideways, and guides the animals by reins fastened to their collars; but more particularly by his voice, and a crooked stick which he carries in his hand. If the dogs be well trained, the charioteer has only to strike the ice with his stick to make them go to the left, and the sledge to make them go to the right; and, when he wishes them to stop, he places it betwixt the front of the sledge and the snow. When they are inattentive to their duty, he chastises them by throwing his stick at them; but great dexterity is generally requisite in picking it up again. So much, however, depends upon the excellence of the leader, that a steady and docile dog for this purpose is not unfrequently sold for as much as ten pounds sterling. The fleetness of the Siberian dogs is so great that they have been known to perform a journey of 270 miles in three days and a half; and with a sledge containing three persons and their luggage, they will travel sixty miles in a day. During the most severe storms, The natives of Kamtschatka wear the skins of these animals as clothing, and consider the long hair as an ornament. 27. The NEWFOUNDLAND DOG, for united size, strength, and docility, exceeds all the kinds of dog with which we are acquainted. As its name imports, it is a native of the island of Newfoundland; and also of the adjacent parts of America, where it is employed in drawing wood on sledges, from the interior of the country to the sea-coast. Four of these dogs are harnessed to each sledge, and are able with ease to draw three hundred weight of wood for several miles. And it is peculiarly deserving of remark, that they often perform this service without any driver. Before the introduction of horses into general use in Canada, most of the land-carriage was performed by dogs. The ease with which the Newfoundland dog swims, and the strong attachment which he forms towards mankind, have rendered him of great service in cases of danger from the oversetting of boats, and other accidents by water. British Dogs. 28. The SHEPHERD'S DOG is an animal of rude and inelegant appearance, has its ears erect or half erect, and the tail covered beneath with long hair. In wide and extensive tracts of down or mountain that are appropriated to the feeding of sheep, it would be impossible for the shepherds to have any command over their flocks, without the assistance of this faithful and docile ally. At a word from his master he drives the sheep to and from their pasture, and will suffer no 29. The WATER DOG is principally distinguished by having its hair long and curled, like the fleece of a sheep, its muzzle somewhat short, and the feet more webbed than those of most other dogs. There are two kinds of water-dogs, which differ only in size, the one being nearly as large again as the other. It is to sportsmen principally that these dogs are of use. Being fond of swimming, they are chiefly employed for fetching out of the water game that has been shot and fallen into it. Their fleece has so near a resemblance to wool, that it is capable of being manufactured into a coarse kind of cloth, or of being made into hats. 30. The SPANIEL (Fig. 21) is a dog with pendulous and woolly ears, the hair long on all parts of the body, but particularly on the breast, beneath the body, and at the back of the legs. Like the water dog, the spaniel is chiefly useful to sportsmen, in the shooting of water fowl. And when hawking was a fashionable recreation in England, this was the kind of dog which was always taken out to spring the game. In all ages the spaniel has been noted for fidelity and attachment to mankind; and the instances that have been recorded of these are innumerable. The chief order of Denmark (now improperly denominated the order of the elephant) was instituted in memory of a spaniel, which had shown a peculiar attachment 31. The SETTER is a dog nearly allied to the spaniel, and is to this day frequently distinguished by the name of the English spaniel. In some parts of England these dogs are used in the field to discover and point out game to the sportsman. They are very tractable, and easily trained to their duty. And such are their muscular powers, that an instance has been related of a setter having hunted all the fields adjoining to the road along which his master was riding, through a distance of near sixty miles. 32. The POINTER is a dog with smooth hair, stout limbs, blunt muzzle, and tail appearing as if in part cut off. These dogs are in common use with sportsmen, for discovering game, which they are taught to do with wonderful steadiness and attention. Aided by the acuteness of their smell, they gently approach the spot where the game lies, and at length stop; having their eyes steadily fixed upon it, one foot generally somewhat raised from the ground, and the tail extended in a straight line. If the birds run, the dog steals cautiously after them, keeping still the same attitude; and when they stop he is again steady. It is by the assistance of pointers that game is chiefly killed in this country. 33. HOUNDS are distinguished into three kinds, called the harrier, fox-hound, and stag-hound; all of which are characterized by having their ears smooth and pendulous, and having on each hind foot a spurious claw, called a dew claw. Of these animals the first, which is the smallest, has its name from being employed in hunting the hare; the second is larger and more stout, and is used for hunting the fox; and the third, which is the largest, stoutest, and fleetest of the whole, is used for hunting the stag. They are always taken to the field in packs, 34. The BLOOD-HOUND is larger than the common hound, and is generally of a deep tan or reddish colour, with a black spot over each eye. In the early periods of our history, blood-hounds were in much greater request than at present.—They are indebted, for their name, to the faculty with which they are endowed, of being able to trace wounded animals by their blood. Their principal employment was to recover such game as, after having been wounded, had escaped from the hunters. In most of the royal forests blood-hounds are at this day kept, for tracing wounded deer; which they are able to do, however distant the flight, or however thick the parts of the forest through which they may have passed. Deer-stealers are also frequently discovered by means of these animals. Blood-hounds were formerly used in certain districts on the confines of England and Scotland, to overawe or pursue the depredators of flocks and herds. Of late years they have been employed in the island of Jamaica, to discover the ambuscades of the Maroons, in their projected descent upon the whites; and, in the Spanish West Indian islands, to traverse the country, in pursuit of persons guilty of murder and other crimes. The dogs are taught to act more by exciting terror than by attack; and criminals are in general taken by them, and brought to justice, without the slightest personal injury. 35. The GREY-HOUND (Fig. 22) is distinguished by his slender and curved body, his narrow muzzle, and his tail being curved upward at the extremity. Our ancestors so highly esteemed the grey-hound, that, by the laws of Canute, it was enacted that no person under the degree of a gentleman should presume to keep a grey-hound. The pursuit of animals 36. The MASTIFF (Fig. 23) is a dog of large size and robust body; and has the lips hanging down at the sides. By the ancient Britons it was customary to train these dogs to be of use in war. With us they are chiefly employed as watch dogs; and they discharge this duty in many instances with great fidelity. Some of them will suffer a stranger to come into the enclosure they are appointed to guard, and will accompany him peaceably through every part, so long as he continues to touch nothing; but the moment he attempts to lay hold of any of the goods, or endeavours to leave the place, the animal informs him, first by growling, or if that be ineffectual, by harsher means, that he must neither do mischief nor go away. He seldom uses violence unless resisted; and in this case, will sometimes seize the person, throw him down, and, without biting him, will hold him there for hours, or until relieved. When roused to fury the mastiff is one of the most tremendous animals with which we are acquainted, and consequently one of the most difficult to be overcome in combat. He is, however, capable of a steady attachment towards his master, and will protect him from injury at the risk of his own life. 37. The BULL-DOG is smaller than the mastiff, but in general form is nearly allied to it: the body is robust, the snout somewhat flatter than that of the mastiff; and the lips are pendulous at the sides. For courage and ferocity the bull-dog is exceeded by no British animal of its size. Since the horrid practice 38. The TERRIER is a small and hardy kind of dog, the name of which is derived from its usually subterraneous employments. Some terriers are rough, and others smooth haired. They are generally of reddish brown, or black colour, short-legged, and strongly bristled about the muzzle. These dogs, the determined enemies of almost every species of vermin, are of great use to farmers and others, in the extermination of rats, polecats, and similar depredators. They are also employed in driving foxes from their dens, and on this account are generally attendants upon every pack of fox-hounds. Formerly they were used in rabbit warrens, to expel these animals from their burrows. In character they are fierce, keen, and hardy; and, being remarkable for vigilance, they are admirable house-dogs. 39. The LURCHER is a dog apparently partaking of the nature both of the terrier and the grey-hound; there are two varieties, one covered with short and thickset hair, and the other with long and harsh hair. As this dog hunts both by sight and smell, and takes his prey without noise, he is frequently employed by poachers in their nocturnal excursions in pursuit of game. When in the midst of game the lurcher does not, like most other dogs, either bark or suddenly run upon it; but, by a seeming neglect, he deceives the object till it comes within reach, and then suddenly springs upon and secures it. 40. The TURNSPIT is a small dog, with short and generally crooked legs, and the tail curled upward. These dogs were formerly much employed to assist in the roasting of meat. For this purpose they were placed in a broad kind of wheel connected with the spit, which they turned round by running in it as 41. The WOLF (Canis lupus) is a ferocious animal of the dog tribe, of brownish colour, with pointed nose, erect and sharp ears, and bushy tail bent inward. This animal is found wild in most of the countries of the Continent, and was formerly common in England. The wolf affords to us nothing valuable but his skin, which makes a warm and durable fur. In North Carolina there is a kind of wolf the skin of which, when properly dressed, makes good parchment; and, when tanned, is convertible into excellent summer shoes. The Indians frequently use these skins for beds, under an impression that they drive away bugs and fleas; and they imagine that nearly all parts of this animal are useful as remedies for different bodily disorders. In the ancient periods of our history wolves were so numerous and so destructive in England, that we are informed of places having been built in different parts of the island to defend passengers from their attacks. In the reign of Edward the First, a royal mandate was issued to a person whose name was Corbet, to superintend and assist in the destruction of wolves, in the several counties of Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford; and numerous individuals held lands of the crown, by the duty of hunting and destroying wolves. The latest account that has occurred respecting the existence of wolves in England is under the date of 1281. The last wolf known to have been killed in Scotland was in the year 1680; and the date of the complete extinction of these animals in Ireland is 1710. 42. The COMMON FOX (Canis vulpes, Fig. 24) is an animal of the dog tribe, of brown colour, with sharp muzzle, erect and pointed ears, and straight and bushy tail tipped with white. This animal is found in almost every country of the world. Although foxes occasionally commit great depredation in poultry-yards, and among game, they are serviceable to mankind by destroying many kinds of noxious animals. Their skin also constitutes a soft and warm fur, which, in many parts of Europe, is used for muffs and tippets, for the linings of winter garments, and for robes of state. So great is the demand for these skins, that, at Lausanne, there are furriers, who in a single winter, have received betwixt two and three thousand of them from different parts of the adjacent country. The flesh of the fox is eaten by the inhabitants of some countries of the Continent. 43. The ARCTIC FOX (Canis lagopus) is an animal of the dog tribe, smaller than the common fox, of white or bluish grey colour; the hair very thick, long, and soft, the tail straight and bushy, and the feet very hairy. The extreme parts of North America, and the country around the Frozen Sea, are those which the Arctic fox principally inhabits. These animals are principally killed on account of their skins, their fur being light and warm, though not durable. In winter this changes to a white colour, and becomes much thicker. The inhabitants of Greenland split the tendons, and use them as thread; they also sometimes eat the flesh of these animals. The modes in which they are caught are various: by stone traps; in holes in the snow, the openings to which are surrounded by snares; in pitfalls, the surfaces of which are so covered that the animals are unable to discover them; and with arrows and guns. 44. The LION is an animal of the cat tribe, distinguished, from all others, by his body being of uniform tawny colour, the tail being long and bushy at the end, and the neck and chest of the male being clad with a shaggy mane. The deserts of the interior of Africa, Persia, India, and Japan, are inhabited by these animals. The skin of the lion was formerly used as the tunic It is a characteristic of the lion that he does not often attack any animal openly, unless provoked, or impelled by hunger. The immense strength of his body, his dauntless courage, and the great quantity of food that is requisite to his support, all, however, tend to render him an object of dread. His voice, when irritated, is an horrible roar, which is particularly loud and tremendous when in the act of springing upon and seizing his prey. The only mode of alarming these animals, and preventing a threatened attack, is by fire; the notion of their being alarmed at the crowing of a cock is entirely fabulous. 45. The TIGER (Felis tigris) is an animal of the cat kind, about the size of a lion, with smooth hair, of brownish or tawny yellow colour, and marked by long transverse stripes. He is a native of various parts, both of Asia and Africa, but is principally found in India and the Indian Islands. The skin of the tiger is almost the only advantage, trifling as that is, which mankind appears to derive from this destructive beast. Tigers' skins are occasionally imported into Europe, but not in great numbers, as articles of trade. They are rather brought as objects of curiosity than of use; and are chiefly employed as hammer-cloths for carriages. They are, however, much esteemed by the Chinese; the mandarins cover their seats of justice and sedans with them, and also use them for cushions and pillows in the winter. The best skins are of large size, with bright yellow ground, beautifully marked with numerous broad black stripes; the more intense the yellow, and the better defined the stripes, the more valuable are the skins. The Indians eat the The great military officers of China have the figure of a tiger embroidered on their robes, than which there could not be selected a more appropriate symbol of the evils and horrors of war. We know of no quadruped so powerful and ferocious as this. He is the terror of the inhabitants of all the hotter parts of Asia, who not only fear for ravages which he commits amongst their cattle and flocks, but even for their own personal safety. The mode of seizing his prey is by concealing himself, and springing suddenly upon it with an hideous roar. This tremendous beast usually resides in woods and thickets, near streams or morasses. 46. The PANTHER (Felis pardus), OUNCE (Felis uncia), and HUNTING LEOPARD (Felis jubata), are all animals of the cat tribe; of which the panther is about seven feet in length, and has the upper part of the body marked with circular spots, many of them with a spot in the centre, and the lower parts with stripes; the ounce is about three feet and half in length, has the body whitish, with irregular black spots; and the hunting leopard is about the height of a grey-hound, has its body tawny, with black spots, and the neck somewhat maned. Each of these animals is found in the hotter parts of Africa and Asia. In Persia and India, the ounce and hunting leopard are each trained for the chase of antelopes and other game. Of these the former is carried, on horse-back, behind the rider, upon a small leather pad made for the purpose. As soon as the horseman perceives an antelope or other animal at a moderate distance, he makes the ounce descend; which, creeping unperceived near the spot, springs, at five or six amazing leaps, suddenly upon it, and seizes it securely by the neck. The hunting leopard is generally carried in a small waggon, chained and hooded, lest his precipitation should defeat The skins of all these animals are valuable, and are converted into excellent furs. That of the panther is particularly esteemed in Russia. 47. The LEOPARD (Felis leopardus) is an animal of the cat tribe, about four feet in length, of yellowish colour, and marked with numerous annular spots. It is an inhabitant of Senegal, Guinea, and most parts of Africa; and has considerable resemblance, both in habit and appearance, to the panther. Leopards' skins are much esteemed in Europe. They seldom exceed four feet in length; and should be chosen large, of lively yellow colour, marked on the back and sides with annular spots, the belly covered with longish white hairs, and with large and oblong spots on the tail. Their use is for hammer-cloths, muffs, the trimmings of ladies' dresses, and other purposes. Some of the most valuable of these skins sell for ten guineas each and upwards. The flesh of the leopard is said, by Kolben, to be white and of good flavour. 48. The COMMON CAT (Felis catus), in its wild state, is distinguished from all the animals of the same tribe by having its tail marked with rings of different coloured hair. The body of the wild cat is marked with dusky stripes, of which three on the top of the back are lengthwise, whilst those on the sides are transverse and somewhat curved. Domestic cats are marked very variously; some are grey and striped, others variegated with black, white, and orange, and others are entirely black or white. Cats are found wild in woods of Europe, Asia, and America. The savage disposition and great size of the wild cats render them the most formidable wild animals which are now left in Great Britain. In the southern and midland parts of England they have all been long destroyed; but, in the woods which border the lakes of Westmoreland and Cumberland, and in several of the The domestic cat (Fig. 3) is a subdued variety of the wild species; and although it still partakes, in some degree, of the native ferocity of its original, it is a clean and useful inmate in our houses. By the ancient Egyptians cats were considered objects of sacred veneration; it was accounted a capital crime wilfully to kill one of them, and whoever even accidentally killed one was liable to severe punishment. We are informed by Herodotus, the Greek historian, that, whenever a cat died a natural death, the inhabitants of the house were accustomed to shave their eye-brows in token of sorrow, and the animal so dying was embalmed and nobly interred. The Turks entertain a sacred respect for cats; and the ancient Britons so greatly esteemed them that, in the tenth century, their price was inserted even in the laws of the land: a kitten, before it could see, having been rated at a penny (equal to at least five shillings of present money); as soon as proof could be had of its having caught a mouse, the price was raised to two-pence; and a tolerably good mouser was considered worth four-pence. These animals possess a very acute sense both of sight and smell; and by the peculiar structure of their eyes, which sparkle in the dark, they are able to discover their prey, such as rats and mice, as well in the night as during the day; and a cat, that is a good Useful as cats are to us, they are, in some respects, unpleasant. If injured or offended, they suddenly express their resentment by scratching and biting, and sometimes with great fury. Constantly bent on theft and rapine, they are never to be trusted in the same room with provisions that are within their reach; and although many persons do not hesitate to let them sleep on their beds, it is a practice much better avoided, as the exhalation from their bodies is considered to be injurious. The skins of cats form, in some countries, a very considerable branch of commerce; and, as furs, they are much esteemed for particular purposes. Those of Spanish cats are the most valuable; but the greatest numbers sent from the northern parts of Europe and Asia. The Russians not only export them to other countries of Europe, but even send them into China. In Jamaica, and some of the other West Indian islands, the negroes frequently eat the flesh of cats. From the skins of their intestines was formerly manufactured the article called cat-gut, which was used as strings for violins, and other similar musical instruments; but this is now chiefly made from the intestines of sheep. If the fur of the cat be rubbed with the hand, particularly in frosty weather, it yields electric sparks; and if a cat, clean and perfectly dry, be placed during frosty weather on a stool with glass feet, and rubbed, for a little while, in contact with a coated phial, the phial will become effectually charged. This fur is consequently sometimes used in electrical experiments. The Caffre women, in the South of Africa, occasionally use cat-skins as pocket handkerchiefs. 49. The LYNX (Felis lynx) is an animal of the cat tribe, This animal is found in woods and forests of the northern parts of Europe, of Asia, and America, where it climbs with facility into the loftiest trees. There is a trade in the skins of lynxes, and other animals, betwixt Russia and China. These skins constitute a thick and soft fur, and, when of pale or whitish colour, with the spots tolerably distinct, they are very valuable. The further north the animals are caught, the whiter and better are the skins; those that are most elegant are taken near lake Balkash in Usbec Tartary. They are sold at a rate of from fifteen shillings to five or six pounds sterling each, exclusive of the fore feet, which are so valuable as to be sold separately, and at high prices. 50. The ICHNEUMON (Viverra ichneumon) is a quadruped somewhat more than three feet in length, of which the tail, which is thick at the base, and tapering and tufted at the extremity, measures nearly half: the hair is hard, coarse, and of reddish gray colour, and the great toes are remote from the others. It is found in Egypt, and particularly in the parts of that country which are adjacent to the banks of the Nile. It is also found throughout nearly all the southern parts of Asia. To the inhabitants of Egypt the ichneumon is an animal of great importance. Being a natural enemy of the whole serpent race, and of other noxious reptiles which infest that country, it unsparingly attacks and destroys them. It combats, without dread, even the most venomous serpents; and the address with which it seizes them by the throat, in such manner as to avoid receiving any injury itself, is very remarkable. It digs the eggs of crocodiles out of the sand; and even kills and devours great numbers of the young ones of those tremendous and dreaded creatures. Both in India and 51. The STRIATED WEASEL, or SKUNK (Viverra putorius), is an animal of the ichneumon tribe, which has the upper parts of its body striped with black and while, the neck and legs very short, and the tail is clad towards its extremity with long whitish hair. This animal is about eighteen inches in length exclusive of the tail, which measures about fourteen inches. It is an inhabitant of several parts of America. The mode in which the skunk is protected from the attack of enemies more powerful than itself, is by emitting an odour so fetid and abominable that few creatures are able long to continue within its influence. Cattle are said to be so much alarmed by it as to utter the most dreadful bellowings. Clothes that are infected with this smell retain it for many weeks; no washing can render them sweet, and they must be for some time buried in the fresh soil before they are thoroughly cleansed. Notwithstanding this, the American Indians frequently eat the flesh of the skunk; but great care is requisite in killing it, to prevent any ill effect which would arise from its noxious vapour. As soon as the animals are dead, the glands, from which this vapour issues, are cut away, and the flesh, then untainted, is said nearly to resemble that of a young pig. The skins of these quadrupeds, which are sweet, and well clad with hair, are much in request by furriers. The inhabitants of Chili are very partial to them as coverlids for their beds, and for other useful purposes. The Indians also make purses of them, which they hold in great esteem. 52. The CIVET (Viverra civetta) is an animal of the ichneumon tribe, distinguished by having coarse hair of yellowish ash-colour, marked with large blackish or dusky spots and stripes; a sort of upright mane on the neck and back, and the tail spotted above, and brown towards the tip. The whole length of the civet is generally about two feet. It is a native of several parts both of Africa and India. The drug or perfume called civet is the production of this animal. It is formed in a large bag or receptacle situated at a little distance beneath the tail, and the creature often spontaneously presses it out through an external orifice. This substance is a fatty secretion about the consistence of soft pomatum, of lively white colour when fresh, but darker when it has been some time kept. Its perfume is so strong, that it infects every part of the animal's body. The skin and hair are so entirely impregnated with it, that they retain their original smell long after they have been taken from the body; and if a person be shut up in the same apartment with one of these quadrupeds, the odour is almost insupportable. Civet was formerly much employed in medicine; but it is now seldom used, except as a perfume. It communicates some smell both to watery and spirituous liquors; hence a small portion of it is often added to odoriferous waters and spirits. The Italians make it an ingredient in perfumed oils, and in this manner obtain the whole of its scent; for oils dissolve the entire substance of the civet. When genuine, its value is from thirty to fifty shillings per ounce. Although the animals which produce this drug are inhabitants of hot climates, they are kept in great numbers, and with a commercial view, at Amsterdam. They are fed with boiled meat, eggs, birds, small quadrupeds, and fish; and, as soon as the receptacle of any of them is supposed to be nearly full, the animal is put into a long cage, so narrow that it is unable to turn round. This cage has a door behind, through which a small spoon or spatula is introduced into the pouch. In many parts of the Levant and the East Indies, civets are reared and fed, as domestic animals are with us: but as, in the Levant particularly, they are few in number, and brought from a great distance, the perfume is increased by introducing into the bag a small quantity of butter or other fat. The people then shake the animal violently, and, by beating, irritate and enrage it as much as possible. This accelerates the secretion; and the fat, after having imbibed a great portion of the perfume, is used in place of the genuine drug. Civet is adulterated by mixing it with storax and other balsamic and odoriferous substances. That which is procured from Amsterdam is said to be less adulterated, and consequently is held in higher estimation than the civet which is imported from the Levant and the East Indies; but, notwithstanding the apparent care to sell it genuine, as would appear by the sealed bottles in which it is purchased, there is reason to suppose that very little indeed of it is free from adulteration. It must be remarked, that the drug called civet is not only produced by this animal, but by some others of the same tribe, though in smaller quantity, and of less value. Civet is more pleasant than musk (65), to which it has some resemblance, and with which, by ignorant persons, it is sometimes confounded. 53. The GENET (Viverra genetta) is a quadruped belonging to the ichneumon tribe, and nearly allied to the civet, but is distinguished by its tail having seven or eight black rings, and the body being of tawny red colour, spotted with black. It is an inhabitant of some parts of Asia, and is also found in France and Spain. Its length is about seventeen inches. Like the civet (52) this animal produces, and in similar manner, an agreeable perfume. It is not, 54. The MARTIN (Mustela foina) is a quadruped belonging to the weasel tribe, with greatly lengthened body and short legs, and the body of blackish tawny colour above, brown on the belly, and white on the throat. This animal is about eighteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and is not uncommon in woods near farm-yards, in the southern districts of Great Britain and Ireland. It is also found in several parts both of the Old and New Continent. In some countries the martin is an object of eager pursuit, on account of its skin, which makes a valuable fur. This is in great request in Europe for lining and trimming the robes of magistrates, and for several other purposes. In Turkey, where furs of all kinds are in much esteem, those of the martin are particularly admired; and they are exported thither chiefly from France and Sicily. They form a considerable article of commerce betwixt this country and the northern parts of America; more than 12,000 skins being annually imported from Hudson's Bay, and more than 30,000 from Canada. The most valuable part of the skin is that which extends along the middle of the back. In England these skins are sold for about seven shillings each; and the best and darkest of them are sometimes imposed upon the purchaser for sables' skins (55). In some countries the flesh of the martin is eaten; but from its musky flavour, it is not very palatable even to persons who are accustomed to partake of it. 55. The SABLE (Mustela zibellina, Fig. 4) is an animal It is a native of some of the northern parts of America and Europe, as well as of Siberia and Kamschatka, and is usually about eighteen inches in length. The fur of the sable is peculiarly valuable. Some of the darkest and best skins, though not more than four inches in breadth, have been sold at sums equal to twelve or fifteen pounds sterling each. Sables' skins are chiefly imported from Russia, and the greatest number of them was formerly obtained in Siberia, by persons banished thither from Russia: or sent for the purpose of collecting them. These were compelled by the government to furnish annually a certain number of skins by way of tax. Sables are chased only during the winter, betwixt the months of November and January; for at that time the skins are in the highest perfection. Such animals as are caught at any other season have their skins full of short hairs, which render them less valuable. The sable hunters frequently assemble in companies of thirty or forty, and proceed along the great rivers in boats, taking with them provisions for three or four months. They have a chief, who, when they are arrived at the place of their rendezvous, assigns to each division of his men the quarter to which they are to go. In the places which are frequented by these animals the hunters remove the snow, on particular spots, and place snares there, each hunter being able to place about twenty snares in a day. They also pitch upon small places near trees; these they surround with pointed stakes of a certain height, covering them with boards to prevent the snow from falling in, and leaving a narrow entrance, above which is placed a beam supported only by a small and light piece of wood. As soon as a sable touches this to seize the piece of meat or fish which is placed for a bait, the beam falls and kills it. Sables are also caught by a kind of snares that are usually laid for grouse and hares, being peculiarly partial to the seeds that are employed as bait for these animals. Nets are sometimes used. When the hunter has discovered the trace of a sable in the snow, he pursues it till he arrives at the burrow of the animal, over the mouth of which he places his net, and then by smoke compels the animal to come out, when he is secured in the net. If fire-arms are used, they are loaded only with single balls, that the skins may be as little injured as possible. Sometimes, in place of fire-arms, cross-bows with very small or with blunt-headed arrows are adopted. All the sables, as they are caught, are either delivered to the chief hunter, or concealed in holes of trees, lest the Tonguses, or other tribes inhabiting the adjacent country, should steal and carry them away. When the time appropriated to the chase is over, the hunters all assemble at the place of rendezvous, and return home. The hardships, fatigue, and perils with which these expeditions are attended, may well be conceived when we consider the nature of the country, the season of the year, and the intense cold which the hunters have to endure. Frequently do they penetrate into the depths of immense and trackless woods, from which, they have no other mode of securing a retreat, than by marking the trees as they advance; and, if these marks should be obliterated and fail them, they must inevitably be lost; often have they to sustain the extremes of cold and hunger. Some instances have been mentioned of sable hunters, when their provisions have failed, being reduced to the necessity of tying thin boards tight to their stomachs to prevent the cravings of appetite. To all these must be added the constant peril, under which they labour, of being overwhelmed and lost in the snow. The fur of the sable is short, and generally of glossy and beautiful blackish brown colour: some animals, There is a mode of dyeing the light-coloured furs darker, and also of dyeing other furs to imitate sables; but these are easily discovered by their having neither the smoothness nor the gloss of furs in a natural state. Sables are very sprightly and active little animals. They form holes or burrows under ground in forests, and the banks of rivers, and subsist on small quadrupeds, birds, eggs, and other animal substances of different kinds. 56. The FERRET (Mustela furo) is a species of weasel, which, in shape, somewhat resembles the martin (54); but it has a strong and more shaggy fur, of dingy yellowish colour, and red eyes. It is found wild in the northern parts of Africa. The principal use to which this quadruped is applied is in rabbit warrens, for driving those animals out of their burrows into the nets or traps of the warreners. Though naturally of savage disposition, ferrets are easily tamed, and rendered sufficiently docile for all the services that are required of them. They should be kept in tubs or chests, and well supplied with clean straw, as otherwise they would become excessively fetid and offensive. When about to be used, they should be kept, for a little while, without food, and have their mouths securely muzzled. The former, lest they should become indolent and not hunt: and the latter, lest they should satiate themselves on the rabbits, and consequently be disinclined to return from the burrows. Some warreners are so cruel as to sew up the mouths of ferrets instead of muzzling them. When put into a burrow it is customary to tie a bell round the neck of the ferret, and purse-nets are fastened over all the holes that are supposed to communicate with that in which he is placed. The use of the bell is to ascertain the situation of the ferret, and Ferrets are frequently kept by farmers and other persons for killing rats; and so eager and active are they in this pursuit that few are able to escape them. Even a young ferret, after he has seized a rat, will so perseveringly retain his hold, as to suffer himself to be dragged to a considerable distance before he can kill it, but he seldom fails in doing this at last. As the unmixed breed of ferrets is supposed to degenerate, and lose, in some degree, their native ferocity, it is usual with some warreners to cross the breed with our native wild animal the polecat. 57. The ERMINE is a species of weasel, of white colour, except the tip of the tail, which is black. This is, however, only the winter colour of the animal in the northern parts of Europe; in the summer it becomes brown instead of white, and in this state has the name of stoat. This animal, which, in its brown state, is well known in all parts of England, is usually about ten inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The skins of ermines are a valuable article of commerce in several parts of the Continent, and particularly betwixt the Russians and Chinese. In some countries, as in Norway, Lapland, and Finland, the animals are found in prodigious numbers. They are generally caught in traps, but are sometimes shot with blunt arrows. Their skins are employed for ornamenting robes of state, and in various parts of female dress; and, for these purposes, they have been used during In Russia ermines' skins of good quality are sold at the rate of about a shilling each. They are usually sewed in lengths of three Russian ells, and these parcels are estimated, according to their quality, at from two to five guineas each. Many deceptions, however, have been practised respecting ermines' skins, which have tended to depreciate their value; the principal of these is to conceal and sew small bits of lead in the feet, to increase their weight. Ermines, like all other animals of the same tribe, are carnivorous, and very destructive to such quadrupeds as they are able either openly to attack, or to seize by stratagem. They are chiefly found amongst woods, in hedge-banks, hollow trees, heaps of stones, and the banks of rivers. It is a remarkable circumstance, and one that affords a very pleasing proof of the wisdom of Providence, that, at the commencement of winter, these and other defenceless animals change their brown summer coat to one similar in colour to the snows of that inclement season. By such means they are able to elude the sight of many of their enemies, to the attacks of which they would otherwise be peculiarly exposed. 58. The COMMON OTTER (Lutra vulgaris) is a large quadruped of dark brown colour, with short and thick legs, the hind feet naked, and the tail about half the length of the body. This animal is about two feet in length, exclusive of the tail. It has a short head and broad muzzle; the eyes are situated towards the front of the face; the ears are rounded and, short; and the tail is very thick, particularly towards its origin. The otter inhabits the banks of fresh-water rivers and streams, in many of the British counties; in other parts of Europe, in North America, and Asia, as far as Persia. The depredations committed in rivers and fish ponds by this voracious animal, are not compensated by the Their flesh is allowed by the canons of the Romish church to be eaten on maigre days, from its supposed resemblance to fish, on which otters almost wholly subsist. In the kitchen of the Carthusian convent near Dijon, Mr. Pennant saw the servants preparing an otter for the dinner of the religious of that rigid order, who, by their rules, are prohibited, during their whole lives, the eating of flesh. It is possible so far to tame and educate these animals as to render them serviceable in catching fish. Many instances of this have been mentioned. An inhabitant of Christianstadt in Sweden had an otter which daily procured for him as much fish as served for the use of his family. Dr. Goldsmith speaks of having himself seen an otter plunge into a gentleman's pond at the word of command, drive the fish into a corner, and, seizing one of the largest, bring it off to his master; and in Bewick's History of Quadrupeds two instances of this proficiency are noted. In one of these it is stated that the otter would sometimes catch for his master as many as eight or ten salmon in a day. As soon as one was brought to the shore and taken from its mouth, it dived in pursuit of another; and when tired would refuse to fish any longer, after which it was rewarded with as much as it could devour. The otter always hunts for his prey against the stream; and usually destroys several fish at a time, seldom devouring more than the upper part of their bodies. These animals fish in the sea as well as in fresh water; and their habitation is a den or burrow, which they form or find near the banks of rivers or other water, from which they can take food. 59. The SEA-OTTER (Lutra marina) is chiefly Its length, exclusive of the tail, is about three feet; and its fur extremely soft, and of deep glossy black or dark brown, colour. The hind legs somewhat resemble those of a seal (23). These animals are found on the sea-coast of Kamtschatka and the adjacent islands, as well as on most parts of the opposite coast of America. A considerable trade in sea-otters' skins is carried on betwixt Russia and other nations. The Kamtschadales, on whose coasts the animals are chiefly killed, barter them with the Cossacks, and they with the Russian merchants. So little do the Kamtschadales value these skins, that they exchange them freely for an equal number of foxes' or sables' skins, which are much indeed inferior to them in value. The Chinese are the principal purchasers of them from the Russians; and they pay for them at the rate of from seventy to a hundred rubles each. This great price, and the distance from which they are brought, are the principal causes of their being seldom seen in Europe. The best skins are those of such animals as are killed betwixt the months of March and May. The fur of the sea-otter is, in some respects, inconvenient as cloathing, on account of its being very thick and heavy, otherwise (independently of its greater size) it would be superior in value to the fur of the sable. Its colour is generally black, but sometimes brown like the fur of the common otter. The skins of the females are easily distinguished from those of the males, by being smaller, more black, and having the hair longest under the belly. It was the trade for these and other furs, at Nootka Sound, on the north-western coast of America, which, in 1788, had nearly occasioned a rupture betwixt this country and Spain. The flesh of the young sea-otters is said to be an extremely delicate food, and scarcely to be distinguishable from that of lamb. 60. The COMMON BEAR (Ursus arctos, Fig. 5) is a It is found in marshy woods of the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and is likewise found in Egypt, Barbary, and India. The hunting of bears is an extremely important pursuit to the inhabitants of nearly all the countries in which they are found; and in many parts of the world it constitutes their principal and most profitable employ. The skins are made into beds, covertures, caps, and gloves. Of all coarse furs these are the most valuable; and, when good, a light and black bear's skin is one of the most comfortable, at the same time one of the most costly articles in the winter wardrobe of a man of fashion at Petersburgh or Moscow. In England bears' skins are used for the hammer-cloths of carriages, for pistol-holsters, and other purposes. The leather prepared from bears' skins is made into harness for carriages, and is used for all the purposes of strong leather. Nearly every part of the bear is of use. Its flesh is a savoury and excellent food, somewhat resembling pork: and that of the paws is considered a delicacy in Russia, even at the imperial table. The hams are salted, dried, and exported to other parts of Europe. The flesh of young bears is as much in request in some parts of Russia as that of lamb is with us. Bears' fat is frequently employed as a remedy for tumours, rheumatism, and other complaints. An oil prepared from it is adopted as a means of making the hair grow. This fat is likewise used by the Russians and Kamtschadales with their food, and is esteemed as good as the best olive-oil. The intestines, when cleansed and properly scraped, are worn by the females of Kamtschatka, as masks to preserve their faces from the effects of the sun, the rays of which, being reflected from the snow, are found to blacken the skin; but by this means they are enabled to preserve a fair complexion. The modes in which bears are caught or killed are too numerous to be described in this place. These animals chiefly frequent the most retired parts of forests; and their habitations are dens formed beneath the surface of the ground, in which they pass the winter in a state of repose and abstinence. In some countries, where they are suffered to live without much molestation, they are quiet and inoffensive animals; but in others they are extremely surly and ferocious. 61. The WHITE or POLAR PEAR (Ursus maritimus) is a quadruped of large size, sometimes measuring near twelve feet in length, and covered with long, coarse, and shaggy white hair; the head and neck much longer in proportion than those of the common bear, and the tail short. The sea-shores of Greenland, and other countries within the arctic circle, as well as the immense islands of ice which abound in the Frozen Ocean, are frequented by great numbers of these animals. The uses of the white bear are chiefly confined to the skin, the flesh, and the fat. Of these the skin, which is perhaps the most valuable part, is employed for beds, shoes, boots, and, in various ways, as leather. The flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders and the inhabitants of other northern countries, and is described to be as excellent as mutton, though this must be very doubtful when we consider the food on which these animals subsist. The fat is melted and employed instead of oil; that of the paws is used in medicine, for anointing rheumatic and paralytic limbs, and was formerly esteemed a sovereign remedy in these diseases. Of the tendons, when split into slender filaments, the Greenlanders make thread to sew with. White bears are killed with spears; and are sometimes hunted with dogs, or killed with guns. They are savage, ferocious, and powerful animals; and so 62. The GLUTTON (Ursus gulo) is a small animal of the bear tribe, which has the back, muzzle, and feet of dark brown colour; the sides dusky, and the tail of the same colour as the body. It is about three feet in length, exclusive of the tail; and is a native of mountains and forests in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. In such esteem are the skins of these animals in Kamtschatka, that only the most wealthy of the inhabitants can afford to wear them; and females, when full dressed, ornament their hair with the paws. They indeed value this kind of fur so highly as to assert that the heavenly beings wear garments made of it; and no Kamtschatka can present to his wife or mistress a more acceptable gift than one of these skins. In Lapland they are sold at very high prices; and are used for muffs and the linings of coats. From the skin of the legs the Lapland women cut out gloves, which they work with a kind of tinsel wire, drawn through a machine made of the skull of the rein-deer. The fur is of glossy black colour, and shines with peculiar lustre, reflecting different shades of light, according to the different positions in which it is held. The flesh of these animals is sometimes eaten in Greenland. It is said to be the habit of the gluttons to climb into trees, and to drop from the branches upon the backs of deer and other animals which happen to pass beneath, and on which they can prey. They also feed on hares, mice, birds, and even on putrid flesh; and are said to be voracious in an extreme degree. 63. The RACCOON (Ursus lotor) is a slender and somewhat fox-shaped quadruped belonging to the bear tribe; and is peculiarly distinguished by having a dusky stripe along the nose, and the tail marked with black rings. This animal it chiefly found in the woods of North America. The fur of the raccoon is so soft and useful as to be sometimes employed instead of beaver in the making of hats. It is also used for the linings of garments; and the skins, when properly dressed, make good gloves and upper leathers for shoes. The flesh is eatable. 64. The BADGER (Ursus meles, Fig. 6) is a small animal, of the bear tribe, which has coarse hair, of grey-colour on the upper parts, and black beneath; and a long, black, pyramidal strips on each side of the head; its body and legs are thick, and the teeth and claws peculiarly strong. This animal is found in several of the woody districts of England, as well as in nearly all the temperate parts of Europe, and is about the size of a small pig. In various particulars the badger is an useful animal to mankind. Its flesh, which is somewhat similar in taste to that of the wild dog, is much esteemed in Italy, France, and Germany, and may be made into excellent hams, and bacon. The skin, when dressed with the hair on, makes excellent knapsacks, and covers for pistol furniture and travelling trunks. For all these purposes it is frequently used, as it is impervious by rain, and needs no additional preparation to render it water-proof. In the paralytic complaints of old persons, it is asserted that the hairy skin of the badger, worn next to the body, has been of great service, by stimulating the nerves into action. The hairs or bristles are made into brushes for painters; and the fat is applied to many useful purposes, both externally and internally, in medicine. Badgers are generally caught in sacks fastened at night, when the animals are abroad in search of food, into the mouth of their burrows in the ground. When these are fixed, the animals are hunted home from the adjacent fields with dogs, and, on entering their usual places of retreat to escape from their foes, they are immediately seized and tied up in the sacks by men who are stationed at hand for that purpose. Badgers are also sometimes caught by steel traps placed in their haunts. These animals subsist principally upon roots and other vegetable food, which they scratch and root out of the ground during the night. Their dens or burrows are generally formed in woody places, or the clefts of rocks. Though in almost every respect innoxious, they are endowed with such strength as successfully to oppose the attacks of animals apparently much more powerful than themselves. 65. The VIRGINIAN OPOSSUM (Didelphis opossum) is a whitish-coloured animal about the size of a small cat, but with feet somewhat like those of the monkey, slender muzzle, and scaly tail; the female has a pouch or bag on the under part of the body, in which she places her young ones, when very small, and where they afterwards find a place of retreat from danger. This species of opossum are numerous in Virginia, Louisiana, Surinam, and other warm and temperate parts both of North and South America. Notwithstanding the disgusting smell of these animals whilst alive, when dead and skinned, their flesh is as sweet and excellent as any other animal food. All the American travellers who have partaken of it appear to agree that it much resembles that of sucking pig. The hair, which is of considerable length, is spun, by the American Indians, into thread, dyed red, and then woven into girdles and other parts of dress. 66. The COMMON MOLE (Talpa europÆa) is a small and well-known British quadruped of black colour, with broad fore feet, large head terminating in a slender snout, extremely small eyes, no external ears, and short tail. In former times the skins of moles were in great esteem for many purposes both useful and ornamental. They were employed for the linings of winter garments, and for trimmings in several kinds of dress and were even made into coverlets for beds. At present, although, by a late invention, the down or fur, which is as soft as the finest velvet, has been adopted in the manufacture of hats, they are so little esteemed in this country that Moles live only in burrows or galleries which they dig, under the surface of the earth, with their strong fore feet, and they are chiefly caught to prevent the injury which they are imagined to do to the farmer by throwing up the mould, in little hillocks, in different parts of his grounds. The mode of catching them is by traps placed in their galleries, by persons employed for that purpose, and who are paid for their trouble at a stipulated rate per dozen. Moles feed on roots, worms, and the grubs or caterpillars of insects. They are generally considered to be both blind and deaf, but they possess every requisite organ both for sight and hearing: indeed their quickness of hearing is such that they take alarm, and seek for safety in flight, at even the most distant approach of danger. Moles are believed, by some persons, to be useful and not injurious to the farmer. In cold clayey land their operations are supposed to have a tendency to drain the soil, and to be beneficial in communicating air to the roots of plants; they are also thought to be serviceable by raising fresh mould upon grass-land, and feeding on the grubs of several kinds of insects which subsist on the roots of the grass. 67. The HEDGE-HOG or URCHIN (Erinaceus europÆus) is a small British quadruped, the upper parts of which are covered with spines, each about an inch long, and the under parts covered with hair. These animals are of considerable utility in several points of view. If kept and allowed to run about in rooms that are infested with beetles, cock-roaches, or crickets, they will destroy the whole of them. Some persons imagine that they will devour mice, but this wants authentication. A hedge-hog which was kept at Hedge-hogs sleep in the day-time, and are awake during the night, when they run abroad in search of worms, snails, insects, and other food. Few creatures can be more inoffensive. When attacked they defend themselves by rolling into a globular form, and opposing, on all sides, a spinous surface. There is a notion, but it is apparently an unfounded one, that hedge-hogs suck the milk of cows whilst lying in the fields asleep; and that they stick fruit upon their prickles, and thus carry it off to their habitations. ORDER IV.—GLIRES.68. The COMMON PORCUPINE (Hystrix cristata) is a quadruped, the upper parts of which are covered with quills or spines six or seven inches in length, each variegated with black and white rings; and its head has a crest of smaller spines. This animal, which is common in exhibitions of wild beasts in this country, and is about two feet in length, is found wild in Spain and Italy, as well as in several parts of Africa, Asia, and America. In America porcupines are hunted chiefly on account of their quills, which are applied by the Indians to many useful purposes. The women dye them of several beautiful colours, split them into slips, and weave them into bags, belts, baskets, and other articles, the neatness and elegance of which would not disgrace more enlightened artists. The flesh of the porcupine is It was formerly believed that these animals, when attacked, had a means of defending themselves by forcibly darting their quills at the aggressor; but this opinion has been fully refuted. Their principal mode of defence is by throwing themselves on one side, and erecting their spines against the assailant. They live in dens under the ground, and are chiefly in motion during the night, in search of fruit, roots, and other vegetables, which constitute their principal food. Though apparently heavy and inactive animals, they are able to climb even to the tops of the highest trees, with great facility. 69. The BEAVER (Castor fiber, Fig. 25.) is a quadruped, with smooth, glossy, and chesnut-coloured hair; and a flat, oval, and naked tail, marked into scaly divisions, somewhat like the skin of a fish. These animals inhabit the banks of rivers and lakes in woody and unfrequented parts of the north of Europe, Asia, and America: their general length is betwixt two and three feet. In ancient times the beaver is supposed to have been found wild in this country, and its skin was so valuable as to constitute the chief and most valuable fur which the island produced. The hair is of two kinds, of which the upper is long and thick; and the lower, or that immediately next to the skin, is of dark brown colour, short, close-set, and as soft as down. In commerce a distinction is made betwixt fresh, dry, and fat beaver' skins. Of these the first are obtained from animals that are killed in the winter; the second sort from those taken during the summer; and the third or fat sort are such as have been carried, for some time, on the bodies of the American Indians, who, as it were, tan the skins with their perspirable matter. It is the fur of the first sort which is chiefly manufactured into Besides their fur these animals furnish a valuable substance, which is known by the name of castor[1] or castoreum, and is contained in two little bags, called the inguinal glands, each about the size of a hen's egg. This substance is of a brownish oily consistence, has a disagreeable, narcotic smell, and a bitterish, acrid, and nauseous taste. The castor which is imported from Russia is generally esteemed the most valuable; though in many cases that from Hudson's Bay has been found nearly if not fully equal to it. Castor has been long celebrated as a remedy in hysterical complaints; and has been frequently used with advantage in languid habits and constitutions. The American Indians are partial to the flesh of the beaver, and they use its teeth for the cutting, hollowing, and polishing of wood; they also clothe themselves in beavers' skins, and, in winter, wear them with the hair next to their bodies as a defence against the cold. Beavers are only found in the most retired situations, 70. The CHINCHILLA (Muslaniger) is a small quadruped of the rat tribe, which has a beautifully soft grey fur. The fur of this animal, which is a native of some parts of South America, was formerly used by the Peruvians, as a fine kind of wool, and was spun and woven into stuffs of extremely delicate texture, to which they attached great value. Of late years, however, the manufacture of it has been much neglected. As a fur, the skin of the chinchilla is much in request in this country, in consequence of its having become a fashionable trimming for ladies' dresses, and a favourite article for muffs. 71. The GREY SQUIRREL (Sciurus cinereus) is a quadruped about the size of a rabbit, which has the upper parts of its body grey, and the under parts white. It is found in America, and in some countries of the north of Europe. The skins of these animals are sometimes used as a fur for the lining of winter garments, and are frequently imported into England, but they are not of much value. As, however, they are very tough, they are tanned and employed in America for many of the purposes of leather, but particularly for the making of ladies' shoes. The Laplanders, in winter, annually make war upon the troops of grey squirrels which are found in some parts of their country. This they do chiefly for the sake of their skins, which they make up into bundles of about forty each. But no merchandize is more liable to deception than this. The purchaser receives them without examination, the skins are packed with the fur inward, and all the bundles are sold at the same price. In several of the plantations of North America these animals, from their immense numbers, and the devastations they commit, are greatly injurious to the inhabitants. Rewards for their destruction are consequently given; and, in Pennsylvania alone, more than 600,000 of them have, in some years, been destroyed. The grey squirrels reside chiefly in trees, but lay up 72. The BLACK SQUIRREL (Sciurus niger) is a small black quadruped of the squirrel tribe, which is not uncommon in North America and New Spain. The finest furs which the Iroquois Indians possess are those of black squirrels. These they make into robes and garments, which they sell at a price as high as seven or eight pistoles each. 73. The COMMON HARE (Lepus timidus, Fig. 26) is distinguishable from all other animals of its tribe by the ears being tipped with black, and longer than the head; the hind-legs being half as long as the body, and the tail short. It is found in every quarter of the world except Africa. Notwithstanding the great estimation in which the flesh of the hare is now held as food, it was absolutely forbidden by the Druids; and was abhorred by the Britons for many centuries after the abolition of that order. At the present day it is not eaten by the inhabitants of many eastern nations. It is prohibited by the Mahometans and Jews; and the Copts, who have adopted many of the Jewish customs, refrain from it. The ancient Romans, however, considered it so great a delicacy for the table, that Martial styles the hare, in this view, the first of quadrupeds. The fur of the hare forms an important article in the manufacture of hats, and vast quantities of hares' skins are, for this purpose, annually brought from Russia and Siberia. This is the chief use which we make of them; but, in some parts of the Continent, the fur is spun and woven into a kind of cloth. The inhabitants of Dalecarlia, a province of Sweden, set a peculiar value upon such cloth, from an opinion that it is itself so attractive to fleas as to preserve the wearer from their attacks! The Romans spun the fur both of the hare and rabbit into cloth; but Pliny says that such cloth was neither soft nor durable. In the extreme northern countries, where the frosts of winter are intense, and where snow lies upon the ground for many successive months, all the hares, at the approach of that season, change their coat, and, instead of retaining a coloured fur, become perfectly white. The chase of the hare is, at this day, a popular amusement in most parts of England; and four or five centuries ago it was so much followed, that even ladies had hunting parties by themselves, in which they rode astride upon the saddle. It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the excellence of hares for the table, but the following directions may be of use. When newly killed the body will be stiff, and the flesh of pale colour; but when a hare has been some time killed the body becomes limber, and the flesh gradually turns black. A young hare may be known from an old one, after it is dead, by the bones of the knee joint. If, on thrusting the thumb-nail against this joint, the bones are somewhat separate, the hare is young; if there be no space, it is old; and the greater the separation, the younger the animal may be considered. The under jaw of a young hare may easily be broken, and the ears easily torn; the cleft also of the lip is narrow, and the claws smooth and sharp. In an old hare the cleft of the lip spreads very much, the claws are blunt and rugged, and the ears dry and tough. Hares may be kept better if they are not opened for four or five days after they are killed; and they are considered in the best state for the table when the colour of the flesh is beginning to turn. So numerous are these animals in some parts of England, where attention is paid to preserving the breed, that they become greatly injurious to the crops of all the neighbouring farmers. They feed upon green corn, clover, and other useful vegetables; and frequently commit much damage in young plantations, by eating the bark from the trees. Some years ago a gentleman in Suffolk found it necessary to destroy the hares near some new plantations, and 1082 were ascertained to have been killed. 74. The ALPINE HARE (Lepus Alpinus) is a Siberian animal, destitute of tail, of tawny colour, with rounded, brown ears, and brown feet. Amongst the mountains of Siberia alpine hares are very numerous. They live in burrows or holes under ground, and store up, beneath the shelter of trees or rocks, large ricks of dried grass and other vegetables for their winter's subsistence. These collections are anxiously sought after by persons engaged in the hunting of sables (55); and, in many instances, they are the means of preserving their horses from perishing by famine. Some of the adjacent peasantry also search them out as food for their horses and cattle. The skins of the alpine hares supply one of the articles of commerce betwixt the Russians and Chinese. 75. The RABBIT (Lepus cuniculus) is a British quadruped belonging to the same tribe as the hare; and is principally distinguishable from that animal by its proportionally shorter ears, and by the hind legs being only one-third of the length of the body. The colour of the wild rabbit is dusky brown above, and paler or whitish on the under parts. In the domestic rabbit the colour is various, white, grey, black, or black and white. These animals inhabit nearly all the warmer parts of Europe, as well as several of the temperate countries of Asia and Africa. There are farms in many parts of England, particularly in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire, where the breeding of rabbits is rendered an extremely advantageous pursuit. The most desirable situations are those in which the soil is loose and sandy, and where the ground rises, in different parts into low hills. Such lands can be more profitably employed as rabbit-warrens than any others, from the greater facility with which the animals are able to form their burrows in the earth, and the less liability they have to be flooded, by the falling of heavy rains. In a commercial view rabbits are animals of much greater importance than hares; because, from their habit of living in greater numbers together, they can The particular uses of the rabbit are nearly the same as those of the hare (73). The fur is a principal substance employed in the composition of hats; and such parts of it as are unfit for this purpose may advantageously be adopted for the stuffing of beds and bolsters. Rabbits' skins are also sometimes used as a cheap and warm-trimming for female dress; and the skins themselves, after the hair has been stripped from them, are boiled down, and made into size or glue. The flesh, though, like that of the hare, forbidden to the Jews and Mahometans, is a very delicate and palatable food. We are informed by Pliny, the Roman naturalist, that the ancients had a favourite dish which was made of sucking leverets or rabbits unpaunched. The modes of ascertaining the quality of rabbits as food are nearly the same as those which have been mentioned respecting the hare. It is customary, in most warrens, to use ferrets (56) in the catching of these animals. The ferrets are muzzled and put into the burrows; and, by pursuing the rabbits under ground, they alarm and drive them into nets that are placed over the outlets, in open and extensive grounds other modes are adopted. These, as we are informed by Mr. Daniel, in his work on Rural Sports, are by implements called fold-nets, spring-nets, and a kind of trap called tipes. The fold-nets are set, about midnight, between the burrows and the feeding grounds; the rabbits being driven into them with dogs, and kept enclosed in the folds till morning. The spring-net is generally laid round a haystack, or some other object of inducement for rabbits to collect in Many persons breed rabbits in a tame or domestic state. The skins of these are useful; but, for food, the wild animals are greatly preferable. Care should, at all times, be taken to keep them clean; and, during the breeding season, the males and females must be kept apart. The best food for tame rabbits is the shortest and sweetest hay that can be had; and one load of this will serve two hundred couples for a year. ORDER V.—PECORA.76. The ARABIAN CAMEL, or DROMEDARY (Camelus dromedarius, Fig. 7), is distinguishable from every other specics of camel, by having a single bunch upon the middle of its back. This animal, which is a native of many of the deserts of Asia and Africa, is of a tawny grey colour, and has soft hair, which is longer on the neck, under the throat, and on the haunch, than elsewhere. The Arabian, like all other species of camel, has its upper lip cleft, and its feet with two long hoofs on which it treads, and two others shorter, which do not touch the ground. These animals constitute the principal source of riches, and the whole force and security, of the Arabians. They are the only beasts by which the inhabitants of the sandy deserts of many parts of Asia could travel or convey their burdens. Their tough and spongy feet, which are peculiarly adapted both to the climate and the country, and their abstemious temperament, but particularly their capability of travelling without water, for many successive days, enable them to perform such journeys as would destroy, probably, any other species of quadruped. The caravans, or troops of merchants, that traverse, in all directions, the deserts of Egypt and Arabia, are always accompanied by camels, which are often more in number than the men. These commercial travels are sometimes to the distance of 700 or 800 leagues, and are usually performed at the rate of ten or twelve leagues a day, the camels being, every night, unloaded to rest and feed. For the latter purpose, if better provender cannot be had, they are contented with a small quantity of dates or a few beans, together with the scattered and oftentimes bitter herbage which the desert affords. The burden of each camel usually weighs about half a ton; and, at the command of his conductor, he kneels down for the greater convenience of being loaded. It is from this practice that we account for those horny parts that are observable on the bellies, knees, and limbs, even of the animals that are exhibited in England. Camels are trained, from the earliest part of their life, to the labours which they are afterwards to perform: and, with this view, when but a few days old, their limbs are folded under their body, and they are compelled to remain on the ground whilst they are loaded with a weight, which is gradually increased as they increase in strength. As soon as they have acquired sufficient strength they are trained to the course, and their emulation is excited by the example of horses or of other camels. The pace of the camel is a high and swinging trot, The camels of Sahara are probably more fleet than any that are known; and, on these animals, the Arabs, with their loins, breast, and ears bound round, to prevent the injurious effects of percussion from the quickness of motion, can cross that great desert in a few days. With a goat's skin or a porous earthen pitcher filled with water, a few dates, and some ground barley, the Arab travels from Timbuctoo to Morocco, feeding his camel but once upon the road. In one instance a camel was known to travel from Fort St. Joseph, on the river Senegal, to the house of Messrs. Cabane and Depras at Mogador, a distance of more than 1000 miles, in seven days. It has been observed that the camel is the most completely and most laboriously enslaved of all animals; the most completely, because, in the other kinds of domestic animals, we find at least some individuals in their natural state, and which have not yet been subdued by man: but the whole species of the camel is enslaved; and not any of them are now to be found in their primitive state of independence and liberty. He is the most laboriously enslaved because he has never been trained, but as a beast of burden whom man has not harnessed nor taught to draw, but whose body is considered a living carriage which may be loaded and oppressed. The above are not the only uses of the camel. The In Arabia the milk of the camel is a most important article of nutriment; and the flesh, though dry and hard, is not unpalatable, particularly when young. By the inhabitants of Egypt camels' flesh is so much esteemed, that, at Cairo and Alexandria, it was formerly forbidden to be sold to Christians. In many parts of Africa the tongues are salted and dried, both for use and exportation; and, with the ancient Romans, the heels of camels were eaten as a great delicacy. 77. The BACTRIAN, or TWO-BUNCHED CAMEL (Camelus bactrianus), is known by having two bunches on its back; and by being somewhat larger, and having shorter legs than the Arabian species. This animal is found in Usbec Tartary, the ancient Bactria: it is likewise a native of Siberia, Thibet, and some parts of China. The purposes to which the Bactrian camel are applied are the same as those already described respecting the Arabian species (76). These animals, however, are sufficiently hardy to sustain the climate of the temperate parts of Siberia, and to be able, without injury, to traverse even humid and marshy countries, which would soon prove fatal to the Arabian camel. 78. The LLAMA, or GLAMA (Camelus glama), is a South American species of camel, of small size, which has a protuberance on the breast, and no bunch on the back. The colour of the llama is white, grey, and russet, variously disposed. Its height, to the top of the back, is somewhat more than four feet, and to the head nearly six feet. Without the aid of these animals, the Spaniards who inhabit the mining districts of South America would labour under great inconveniences for the transport of their merchandise and treasures: since mountains that are altogether inaccessible to the horse, are with facility traversed by the llama. This beast, though not so patient, is nearly as abstemious as the camel. He proceeds, when loaded, with a slow but sure pace, and performs journeys, in these mountainous regions, more than 200 leagues in extent. Sometimes he will travel four or five days successively without appearing desirous of repose, and then he rests spontaneously, for twenty or thirty hours, before he resumes his toil. Like the camel, these animals kneel to be loaded; and they are directed in this, and in most other of their motions, by their conductor's whistle. The value of the best llamas is about eighteen ducats, and of the common ones twelve or thirteen ducats each. The burdens they are able to carry are from 150 to 200 pounds' weight: and the number of llamas that are kept in actual employ is supposed to exceed 300,000. Of the skin of the llama a hard kind of leather is made, which is converted into harness, the soles of shoes, and to many other useful purposes. But, as it is only tanned, and not curried, it is soon injured by exposure to wet. The hair, or fleece, particularly of the wild llamas, which is longer than that of the animals in a domesticated state, is much in request for the manufacture of camlets and other stuffs, some of which are of very beautiful texture, and also for the making of hats. On this account the animals are frequently hunted in the plains with dogs, or killed with guns; but such is their activity amongst rocks, that, if they can once reach these, the hunters are generally obliged to desist from any further pursuit. The flesh of the llama is a wholesome and excellent food. Sometimes it is salted, and, in this state, like our salt beef, is adopted as provision for ships proceeding on long voyages. That, however, of the young llamas four or five months old is 79. The VICUNA (Camelus vicugna) is a small South American species of camel, with woolly fleece, a flat and blunt nose, an erect tail; and without any bunches. This animal inhabits, in a wild state, and in extensive flocks, the highest peaks of the Andes. Unable to sustain burthens exceeding sixty or seventy pounds in weight, the vicuna is seldom employed in the transport of merchandise. It is chiefly in esteem on account of its fleece, which is of a dead rose colour, and as soft and valuable as silk. This, in South America, is spun and woven into gloves, stockings, quilts, carpets, and innumerable other articles, which are sold at great prices, and constitute an important branch of commerce. In most of their habits these animals have a close alliance with the llama, and their general figure is nearly the same. They are gentle and inoffensive, and, though not tamed with quite so much facility, are capable of great attachment towards those who have the care of them. Amongst their native mountains they are so light and agile, in all their motions, that it is not easy to come within reach of them, except by stratagem; and, consequently, though dogs are sometimes employed to hunt them, they are much more frequently killed by snares or traps than in any other way. In consequence of the great advantages which, in America, are derived from the wool of the vicuna, the Spaniards were, some years ago, induced to attempt the introduction of these animals into Europe. Some of them were brought to Spain; but, from want of proper attention to their natural habits, the experiment entirely failed. 80. The MUSK (Moschus moschiferus, Fig. 27) is a small quadruped, somewhat shaped like a deer, but without horns; it has two projecting tusks curved downward, a short This animal is seldom more than about two feet in height at the shoulder, and is clad with long, upright, and thickset hair. Each hair is waved, and of three different colours; the tip ferruginous, the middle black, and the bottom dusky. It inhabits the mountains of Thibet, Tonquin, and Siberia. The drug called musk is a brown fatty substance, which appears somewhat like clotted blood. It is contained in the bag or receptacle under the belly, which has two small external orifices; through these, when it is overcharged, the animal squeezes it out upon trees or stones. The mode in which musk is collected for sale is to kill the animals, cut off the bags, and tie them closely up to prevent it from being spoiled by evaporation. In those countries where the animals are most abundant they are pursued in the autumn and winter, and generally with so much success that many thousands of bags are annually collected. It is, however, presumed that, of those which are sold, many are factitious, formed of other parts of the skin, and filled with musk adulterated by mixture with other substances. Indeed, so valuable is this drug, that it is seldom to be obtained in a pure state. To increase its quantity blood is not unfrequently mixed with it; and, to increase its weight, lead finely ground, and sometimes even little bits of lead, are put into the bags. The natives of India are said to have various methods of detecting this adulteration, by the taste and the weight; but, principally, by a thread steeped in the juice of garlic, which they draw through the bag with a needle; this, if it retain the smell of garlic, is considered a decisive indication of the musk having improper ingredients mixed with it. The purest musk is said to be that which is brought from Patna, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, where it is collected from various parts of the interior of the country. It is imported into Europe in bags, each of which is about the size of a pigeon's egg, well filled, and covered with short brown hair. Musk was formerly much used as a perfume. It is now chiefly in repute as a medicine in spasmodic, convulsive, and other complaints; and, when properly given, is thought a remedy of great service. So powerful is the scent of this drug, that the smallest particle of it will perfume a very considerable space; and, when the bags are fresh, if one of them be opened in a close apartment, every person present is obliged to cover his mouth and nose with several folds of linen, to prevent suffocation. In all the countries where these animals are found, their skins are in great request as a strong and valuable leather; and, when tanned and properly prepared, the Russians have a method of rendering this nearly as soft and shining as silk. These skins are also sometimes dressed as furs for winter clothing. The flesh of the musk is frequently eaten; but that of the young ones only is tender and of good flavour. These animals, which are astonishingly light and active in all their motions, and at the same time of inoffensive and timid habits and disposition, are caught by snares placed near their feeding places; are shot with arrows, and sometimes killed by cross-bows, so placed that they discharge arrows, by the animals treading on a string connected with the trigger. 81. The ELK, or MOOSE DEER (Cervus alces, Fig. 8), is the largest species of deer that is known, and is distinguished from all others by having broad and flattened horns with several points, no brow-antlers, and a hairy protuberance on the throat. In size these animals are frequently larger than a horse. Their upper lip is square, very broad, deeply furrowed, and hangs over the mouth. The hair of the male is black at the points, dusky in the middle, and white at the roots; that of the female is of sandy brown colour, except under the throat, belly, and flank, which are whitish. The males only are horned. The elk inhabits the forests of North America, of some parts of Europe, and of Asia as far south as Japan. Strong and powerful as these animals are, it has been found possible to domesticate and train them to labour. Mr. Livingston, at a farm near New York, made the experiment by breaking two elks to the harness. After having been only twice bitted, though two years old, they appeared equally docile with colts of the same age, applying their whole strength to the draught, and proceeding in a steady pace. The motion of these animals is a shambling kind of trot, but it is very rapid, and, in drawing carriages, they are able to out-travel a horse. They are also less delicate in their food than horses, are long-lived, and more productive than any known beast of burden, having annually from one to three young ones at a birth. Elks were formerly used in Sweden for the drawing of sledges; but as they were frequently employed in the escape of criminals from justice, the use of them was prohibited under severe penalties. The inhabitants of all countries where the elk is found esteem its flesh a sweet and nutritious food, though the grain is coarser than that of most other kinds of venison. The American Indians assert that they can travel further, after having eaten of it, than of any other animal food. After having been properly salted and dried, the tongues are better than those of the ox; and the nose, when cooked, is stated to eat like marrow, and to be one of the greatest delicacies which are produced in Canada. Of the skins an excellent buff leather is made, which is strong, light, and soft. This leather is used by the Indians for tent-covers, snow-shoes, and the coverings of canoes. The long hair of the elk is well adapted for the stuffing of mattresses and saddles. In Canada the hunting of the wild elk is a frequent but in general a most laborious, pursuit, which chiefly occupies the attention of the Indians during winter, when the whole surrounding country is covered with snow. In a wild state these animals browze the thick and 82. The REIN-DEER (Cervus tarandus, Fig. 28) is known by its horns being long, bent back, slender, branched, and generally broad at the extremities. It is about four feet and half high at the shoulder, and is of brown or greyish white colour above, and white on the under parts of the body. Both the sexes are horned. These animals inhabit several of the alpine districts of America, and of the northern countries of Europe and Asia. Useful and even indispensable as many of the domestic animals of this country are to us, the rein-deer is infinitely more so to the Laplander. For travelling, and the conveyance of heavy burdens in sledges and carriages, he supplies the place of the horse; and such is the speed with which he traverses the frozen snows of that dreary region, that he is able, with ease, to perform a journey of near a hundred miles in one day. To this labour the animals are trained from the earliest period of their lives: and neither darkness nor storms can essentially impede their progress. The usual mode of travelling is in sledges, to which one or more of the animals are yoked. The sledges are extremely light, somewhat shaped like a boat, having at the back an upright board for the driver to lean against. Being rounded and not flat underneath, much dexterity is requisite in the balancing and management of them. The driver is tied in, and protected by a cover which encloses all the lower parts of his body, and shelters him from the inclemency of the weather. The rein-deer is yoked by a collar, from which a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and fastened to the fore part of the sledge; and the animal is To persons unaccustomed to the habits of the Laplanders and their animals, it will appear wonderful that they should be able to travel during the winter, by night as well as by day, the earth presenting one uniform surface of snow, and not a single vestige of human industry and labour being discernible to direct their course; the snow, at the same time, flying about in all directions, and almost blinding them. Yet it is certain that they are under no difficulty in finding the spot to which they are bound; and dangerous as these journeys may seem, they rarely experience any accident. When several persons are travelling in company, they fix bells to the harness of the animals, that the whole may be kept together by hearing when they cannot see each other, after the light of their short day has failed them. To guide them in their course, the Laplanders observe, in the day-time, the quarter whence the wind blows, and, at night, they are directed by the position of the stars. The missionary Leems, who resided ten years amongst the Laplanders, remarks that, during the whole of that time, he did not remember more than one fatal accident to have occurred from this mode of travelling. As the rein-deer supplies, to the Laplanders, the place of a horse for conveyance and carriage, so it is an invaluable substitute for the cow in affording them food. The females supply them with milk, each yielding about as much as a common she-goat. This, though not so thick as the milk of the cow, is said to be sweeter and more nutritive: and produces them both butter and cheese. The mountain Laplander subsists, through the whole winter, upon these, or upon flesh of the rein-deer, Of the skin, after it has been properly prepared, the Laplanders make garments, gloves, shoes, and caps, which cover them from head to foot, and protect them against the cold. These skins also serve as interior coverings for tents, as linings and coverings for sledges, and as beds. They are more or less valuable, according to the season in which the animals have been killed. If slain in the spring, the hides are found to be perforated, in various parts, by a species of insect which lays its eggs in them; but if the deer be killed in winter the skin is free from these defects. The Laplander, however, desirous of obtaining the same price for a defective skin as for a perfect one, frequently attempts to defraud the purchaser by artfully closing up the holes in such manner as to render them scarcely visible. The horns are converted into handles for different kinds of instruments, and an excellent glue is made of them. The bones are likewise of use; and the sinews or tendons of the legs, after having been held before the fire and beaten with wooden hammers, are divided into filaments as fine as hair, which answer all the purposes of thread; and these filaments twisted together, serve for bowstrings and cords of different kinds. So numerous and important are the uses of the rein-deer in Lapland, that there are few inhabitants of that country who do not possess them; and some of the wealthiest Laplanders have herds consisting of more than 1000 head. In the summer-time these feed on divers plants which flourish during that season; but, in winter, they either browze on the rein-deer liverwort (Lichen rangiferinus), which they dig up from beneath the snow with their feet and horns; or on another kind Wild rein-deer live in the mountains and woods, and the hunting of them is, in general, attended with excessive fatigue; as they are endowed with astonishing muscular powers, and also possess a nicety and acuteness of precaution which can scarcely be equalled. Some idea may be formed of the difficulty of this pursuit, when it is stated that a Laplander, in chase of one of these animals, has been known to creep on his hands and knees through shrubs and moss, for nearly five miles, before he could approach within gun-shot of his prey. The various modes in which rein-deer are pursued, are too numerous and too intricate to require a detail in this place. It may be sufficient to say that they are assailed by dogs, traps, pitfalls, snares, cross-bows, and fire-arms, in all the ways which the inventive art of man can devise. 83. The STAG, or RED DEER (Cervus elaphus, Fig. 9), is a large species of deer, generally of reddish brown colour on the upper parts of the body, and white beneath; with large and much branched horns, rounded through their whole length. The males only are horned. The males is called stag, or hart, the female hind, and the young one has the name of fawn. Red deer are found in the mountainous parts of Scotland; in the forest of Martindale, Cumberland; in the New Forest, Hampshire; in the woods on the river Tamar, in Devonshire; and amongst the mountains of Kerry in Ireland. On the Continent of Europe and in several parts of Asia and North America, they are very common. The hunting of these animals was formerly considered one of the most important occupations of the English nobility, and, during the Saxton Heptarchy, it was the privileged pursuit of the sovereign and his court. By the kings of the Norman line laws of the most As, therefore, the breed of red deer is now chiefly preserved in this kingdom from motives of curiosity, rather than either an object of amusement or utility, we are indebted almost wholly to foreign countries for those parts of the stag which are important in a commercial, economical, and medical view. The skins are manufactured into an excellently soft, and somewhat yellow-coloured leather, which is useful for numerous purposes. Many very extraordinary medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to the horns of the stag, and indeed to nearly all parts of its body: but the experience of late years gives no countenance to them. The horns are of nearly the same nature as bones, and the preparations of them, by heat, are similar to those of solid animal substances in general. Consequently the articles denominated spirit of hartshorn, and salt of hartshorn, though formerly obtained only from the horns of different species of deer, are now chiefly prepared from bones. The former of these, which is a volatile alkali of very penetrating nature, is an efficacious remedy in nervous complaints and fainting fits; and salt of hartshorn has been successfully prescribed in fevers. The scrapings or raspings of the horns, under the name of hartshorn shavings, are variously employed in medicine. Boiled in water, the horns of deer give out an emollient jelly which is said to be remarkably nutritive. Burnt hartshorn is employed in These animals generally live in herds that consist of females, with their offspring, headed by one male, and they inhabit the wildest and most unfrequented parts of forests, browzing on grass, and on the leaves and buds of trees. They have a penetrating sight, and an exquisite smell, and are always on guard against the approach of danger. Their disposition, when unprovoked, is mild and peaceable; but if attacked, they prove extremely formidable opponents. The females produce their offspring (generally one each) about the end of May, or the beginning of June. 84. The FALLOW DEER (Cervus dama, Fig. 10) is a considerably smaller animal than the stag, generally of brownish bay colour on the upper parts of the body and whitish beneath, with branched horns, bent backward, compressed and broad at their extremity. The males only are horned. The male of the fallow deer is called buck, the female doe, and the young one fawn. Common as these animals are in parks throughout every part of England, they are not found wild in this country. They, however, inhabit various forests of the Continent; even as far as the south of Persia. There is no species of food in more general request by epicures and bon-vivans than the venison of the fallow deer. This, when properly dressed, is an excellent aliment, and easily assimilated to the human fluids; but when half putrid, as is generally the case, it is considered very detrimental to health. The best season for killing the bucks for venison is from about the first of July to somewhat later than the middle of September; and that for the does is from about the middle of November to the middle of February. The does produce one, sometimes two, and rarely three young ones each, about the beginning of June; these, for the first year, are called by the park-keepers fawns, if, during that time, they have no horns; the second year, if the young one be a male, it is called a pricket; in the third year, a sorel, and in the ensuing year, a sore; when he attains his fifth year he has the name of buck, and is accounted fit to be killed; but if he be suffered to live a year or two longer, he will improve both in flesh and fatness. If the young one be a female it is called during the first year, a fawn, during the second a teg, and, after that, it takes its proper name of doe. Such does as are intended to be killed in their season are either what have had no fawns in the preceding summer, or have had these killed and taken away. The horns of fallow deer are used for all the same purposes as those of the stag (83); and their hides, under the name of buck-skin and doe-skin, have long been celebrated for their softness and pliability; and the manufacturing of them into breeches and gloves affords subsistence to a very numerous and industrious class of people. Extensive herds of fallow deer associate together in large parks. These animals are less savage than red deer, yet when offended they often become ferocious. They feed on several kinds of vegetables, and on the leaves, bark, and young branches of trees; many of which, particularly hollies, are cut down, by park-keepers, in the severe weather of winter, for their subsistence. 85. The ROE or ROE-BUCK (Cervus capreolus) is a small species of deer, not more than two feet and half high at the shoulder, of reddish brown colour, which has short erect horns, divided towards their extremity into two or three points. The males only have horns. Small flocks of these animals are found wild in several of the mountainous districts of Scotland, and also in the mountainous In some countries the venison of the roe is esteemed, during the proper season, equal to that of any other species of deer. There is, however, a great difference in it, according to the country in which the animals have fed, and the different races or varieties of the animals themselves. The flesh also of the bucks which have passed their second year is said to be tough and not well flavoured, whilst that of the does, though of much greater age, is tender. Those animals that are fed in parks, plains, and valleys, are also greatly inferior to such as have resided among mountains. In America the skins of roes are an important object of commerce. They are very light, and are capable, for some time, of resisting the effects of moisture. Of these skins the American Indians make bags or bottles, in which they are able to keep oil, honey, butter, and other similar substances. They are also converted into clothing, and are sometimes dressed as furs, but the hair soon falls off. The hair itself is valuable for the stuffing of horse-collars and saddles, and it has the advantage of not becoming knotty like that of the ox. The horns are used in making handles for knives and for other purposes. 86. The CHAMOIS (Antilope rupicapra, Fig. 11) is a kind of antelope about the size of a goat, with short, erect, round, and smooth horns, which are hooked backward at the tips. Its colour is dusky yellowish brown on the upper parts of the body, with the cheeks, chin, throat, and belly, yellowish white. The horns, which are common to both the sexes, are generally about eight inches in length, but shorter in the female than the male. These animals inhabit many of the mountainous parts of Europe, particularly the Alps and Pyrenees. There are few pursuits more arduous and difficult than the hunting of the chamois. Being wholly confined to rocky and mountainous situations, dogs are The chief objects of this pursuit are the flesh and the skin. The former is, in general, a nutritious and wholesome food, and the latter is useful in numerous ways. When dressed, it forms a soft, warm, and pliable leather, which has the name of shammoy, and is manufactured into breeches, vests, and gloves, that are very durable and are much used by the labouring classes of people on the Continent. Of late years, however, the art of tanning has been brought to so much perfection, that excellent shammoy leather is made from the skins of the goat, the sheep, and the deer. The horns of the chamois are often cut into heads for canes, and the farriers of the Continent sometimes sharpen and use them for the bleeding of cattle. The blood of these animals is used medicinally, and, in Switzerland, is a celebrated nostrum for the cure of pleurisy and some other complaints. 87. The COMMON ANTELOPE (Antilope cervicapra, Fig. 12) is a quadruped distinguished by having spiral, round, and expanded horns, each marked with a great number of prominent rings; and the body of a brown colour, clouded with whitish and dusky shades and marks. It is found in several parts of Africa and India. One mode of hunting these and some other species Their skins are sometimes dressed with the hair on, and sometimes as leather; and the flesh constitutes an excellent kind of venison. The horns are convertible to nearly all the same purposes as the horns of the different kinds of deer; and they are also occasionally used as weapons. 88. The COMMON GOAT (Capra Ægagrus, Fig. 13) is distinguished by having hollow, compressed, and rough horns, which grow first upright, and then bend backward. Both the male and female are horned. These animals are found wild in many of the mountainous countries of the European continent, of Africa, Persia, and India. In many parts of Europe the goat is an animal essentially serviceable to the necessities and the comforts of mankind; affording even during its life, though fed on the most barren and uncultivated grounds, an abundant supply of milk and cheese. Goats' milk is not only considered to be thicker, but to have a richer flavour than that of the cow; and, in some situations, especially on ship-board, where the goat thrives better than any other animal, it is peculiarly valuable. This creature eats readily every sort of refuse vegetables, and is kept at little expense. In a medicinal view goat's milk is an useful substitute for that of asses. It is of very peculiar nature, as its oily and coagulate parts do not separate spontaneously; they throw up no cream, and yield scarcely any butter. But this milk affords a very large proportion of cheese. Hence, in Switzerland, and other mountainous countries best adapted to the pasturage of goats, cheese is the chief produce of the dairies. The flesh of the goat, when full grown, is rank, hard, and indigestible; yet, in some countries, it is eaten both in a fresh and salted state. That of the kid is When properly tanned, the skin of the goat is manufactured into gloves and other articles of dress. There is a way of preparing these skins by maceration, so as to separate the surface or grain from the coarse under parts, after which they are dyed of various colours for different uses. Morocco leather is chiefly made from the skins of goats, tanned and dyed in a peculiar manner. The manufacture of this leather was originally invented in the kingdom of Morocco, whence it has its name. The colours that are chiefly communicated to it are red and yellow, the former of which is produced by cochineal, and the latter by a yellow kind of berries. Morocco leather is also dyed black, green, and blue. Until within the last few years, the consumers of this kind of leather in England have depended wholly on a foreign supply: there are now, however, several manufactories of it in the neighbourhood of London, from which the most beautiful moroccos may be had at prices that have superseded the necessity of importing it from abroad. For leather of inferior quality, and particularly for such as is to receive a yellow colour, sheeps' skins are often substituted. The reason why goats' skins have been principally adopted for the manufacture of morocco is, that they take the dye better, and that they are susceptible of richer and more beautiful colours, than those of any other animals. Goat-skins, as well as the skins of sheep, are sometimes made into parchment. The skins of kids are thin and of beautiful texture; they are consequently well adapted for ladies' gloves and shoes. On the Continent they are made into stockings, bed-ticks, and sometimes into hangings for beds, into sheets, and even into shirts. Although the fleece of the goat is by no means so valuable as that of the sheep, yet it has been found extremely useful. The long and shaggy coated goat, The long hair of goats, particularly that of the males, is used by peruke-makers, for lawyers and judges' wigs. Previously to its being used, it goes through several processes of preparation. The fine hair of kids is sometimes employed in the manufacture of hats. Goat's hair is occasionally made into a strong and coarse kind of cloth. Of the horns of these animals the country people make handles for tucks, and knives of different kinds. The fat or suet, which, in general, is very abundant, may be made into candles, which, in whiteness and quality, are greatly superior to those of the best tallow of the sheep and ox. Goats are active and mischievous animals, of hardy nature, which delight in rocky and mountainous situations. They are sometimes very injurious to young plantations, from their propensity to peel and destroy 89. The hair of the Angora goat is long, soft, and silky, and is one of the most beautiful substances with which we are acquainted, for the manufacture of shawls, and other fine stuffs; and these, which in England have the name of camblets, are sometimes sold at very high prices. It is supposed that, with attention, Angora goats might be successfully and advantageously bred in Great Britain; particularly in those parts where the country is mountainous, and where the climate and food might not be far different from those of their native country of Asia Minor. 90. The COMMON SHEEP (Ovis aries, Fig. 14) has, in general, hollow, compressed, transversely wrinkled, and somewhat crescent-shaped horns; but some of the varieties are entirely destitute of these weapons. The male is called ram, the female ewe, and the young one has the name of lamb. Sheep are found in nearly every country of the world. The bodies of these animals, in temperate and cold climates, are clad with a curled and closely matted kind of hair, which has the peculiar appellation of wool. The distinguishing characteristic of wool is that, when even the coarsest sort is manufactured into cloth, it thickens in the milling, and forms a close texture, owing to the peculiar roughness of its surface, and to its curly form; whereas the finest possible hair, under the same operation, will neither thicken nor form any texture whatever. It is by the manufacture of wool into various kinds of clothing that many thousands of people, in different countries of Europe, are entirely supported and fed. In temperate countries the fleeces of sheep are shorn or cut off once, and in others, where the climate is warmer, twice in the year, the animals being previously well washed to cleanse the When wool is intended to be manufactured into cloth of mixed colours, it is dyed in the fleece before it is spun. When intended for tapestry, it is dyed after it is spun; and when to be wrought into cloth of uniform colour, it is not dyed until the cloth is made. Much wool is used in the manufacture of hats. For this purpose it goes through a process called felting, to unite or mat it into a firm substance. Felt is either made of wool alone, or of a mixture of wool with camel's or other hair. The skins of sheep, after the processes called tanning and currying, are manufactured into a thin and coarse but useful kind of leather, which is much in request by saddlers, book-binders, and others. These skins, by a different process, are converted into parchment, which is used for writing deeds upon. Lambs' skins are made into gloves. Every part of the sheep is advantageous to mankind. The flesh, under the denomination of mutton, supplies us with a wholesome and palatable food, which is in greatest estimation when the animals are at least three, and not more than six years old. That of lambs, in the spring of the year, is also in considerable demand. House lamb is so denominated from the animals being fattened within doors; but this kind of food is neither so wholesome nor so nutritive as the meat in a natural state. Suet is a solid kind of fat which is found in various parts of the bodies (particularly about the kidneys and intestines) of sheep, oxen, and other ruminating animals. It differs materially from fat or grease, as the latter remains soft, and this hardens in cooling. Suet is used for culinary and other purposes, and very extensively in the making of candles. The milk of sheep is rich and nourishing, and in great esteem among the peasantry of all countries where these animals are bred. It produces an abundance of butter, but this is so unpalatable as seldom to be eaten. Ewes' milk yields a large There are, in Great Britain, many different breeds of sheep, some of which are very valuable. 91. Those called Leicester sheep are chiefly bred in that and the adjacent counties, and are much esteemed for their property of readily fattening. Their mutton, when in perfection, has a fineness of grain and a superiority of flavour beyond that of almost every other kind of sheep. These animals are capable of being rendered so fat, that, in some instances they have measured more than six inches deep in solid fat on the ribs. But, in this case, the mutton is scarcely eatable. 92. A coarse wool, but so long as to measure from ten to more than eighteen inches, is obtained from the breed called Lincolnshire sheep. 93. For united excellence of wool and mutton the South Down sheep are in great demand. This breed, which particularly abounds on the dry and chalky downs of Sussex and other southern parts of England, has of late been dispersed over nearly the whole kingdom. The animals are distinguishable by their grey or speckled face and legs, and being destitute of horns. 94. From the Ryeland and or Herefordshire sheep is obtained a peculiarly short, soft, and fine wool, which, if the filaments were of equal thickness and quality throughout, would be as valuable as the best wool that 95. A breed of sheep, which is well known in Northumberland by the name of Cheviot sheep, produces very admirable mutton and wool of fine texture. Of the milk of these sheep great quantities of cheese are made, which is sold at a low price. This, when three or four days old, becomes very pungent, and is in considerable esteem for the table. 96. The Shetland islands produce a kind of sheep so small as seldom to exceed the weight of thirty or forty pounds. Their wool is sufficiently soft to be adapted even to clothing of the most delicate texture. A pair of stockings that were made of it were so fine as to be sold for six guineas. The skins of these sheep with the fleece on are capable of being converted into a fur of great value; and, when the wool is stripped from them, they are, as leather, peculiarly estimable for aprons, and are purchased by mechanics for this purpose at double the price of other skins of the same size. 97. It is to the breed called Dorsetshire sheep that the London markets are principally indebted for the house-lamb, which, at an early part of the season, bears so high a price. After the lambs are produced they are confined in small dark places, and never see the light, except when brought out to be fed by the ewes; and, at the times when thus brought out, their cabins are cleansed, and littered with fresh straw, as a great part of their value depends upon the cleanliness in which they are kept. 98. The mutton of the Heath sheep, a breed which is found in most of the north-western parts of England, and even as far as the western Highlands of Scotland, is accounted peculiarly excellent; and immense numbers of these sheep are annually sold at the north country fairs. The animals themselves are hardy 99. MERINO SHEEP are a celebrated Spanish breed of sheep, with small horns, white face and legs, small bones, a loose skin hanging from the neck, the wool fine, the external part of the fleece dark brown in consequence of the dust adhering to it, the interior delicate white, and the skin of rosy hue. The celebrity of this breed, for the production of a remarkably fine wool, has been such, that all the highest priced cloths manufactured in this country, until of late years, were made of Spanish wool. In the year 1787 some of these sheep were first introduced into England. And, although it was formerly a prevailing opinion that the excellence of their fleece depended, in a great degree, upon the temperature of the Spanish climate, it has been satisfactorily ascertained that the fineness of Spanish wool is not in the slightest degree impaired by breeding the sheep in this country. Even in Hungary sheep of this kind have, for many years, been so successfully reared, that much of the fine wool used in our clothing countries has been imported from thence. The average weight of the Merino fleece is about three pounds and half. It has lately been a great object of attention in England to improve our own breeds, particularly the Ryeland, by a mixture with merinos, and this cross breed is stated to retain all the principal characteristics of the Spanish race. The mutton of these sheep, for size and flavour, is much in demand, and sells in the market at a higher price than that of most other kinds of sheep. 100. The BROAD-TAILED SHEEP are a very remarkable kind of sheep, distinguished by their tails being extremely large, and so long as sometimes to drag upon the ground. They are found in several parts of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and other eastern countries. The tails of these animals are almost wholly composed of a substance resembling marrow, and sometimes they are equal in weight to one-third of the whole Of these, and of another kind of sheep called Tartarian or fat-rumped sheep, the hinder parts of which are so excessively fat as entirely to enclose the tail, there are great numbers bred in Tartary. It is even stated that, on an average, 150,000 of them are annually sold at the fairs of Orenburgh, and a much greater number in some other places. 101. The COMMON OX (Bos taurus domesticus, Fig. 29) is characterised by having rounded horns which curve outward, and a loose skin or dewlap beneath the throat. The male is called bull, the female cow, and the young one calf. This animal, in a wild state, is the bison (Fig. 15) which is found in the marshy forests of Poland and Lithuania. It is almost impossible to enumerate all the benefits that mankind derive from these admirable animals. In many countries nearly the whole labour of agriculture is performed by oxen, and, after this service is over, they are fatted and slaughtered for food. It is well known in what estimation they were formerly held in Egypt; they furnished even deities to the superstitious inhabitants of that country. From their supplying the Gentoos with milk, butter, and cheese, their favourite food, those people bear for them a veneration so great that nothing on earth would induce them to slay one of them. In nearly all eastern countries oxen are employed in treading out corn. By the Caffres of the Cape of To the milk of the cow we are indebted for several important articles of human subsistence. It is adapted to every state and age of the body, but particularly to the feeding of infants after they have been weaned. Skimmed milk, or that which remains after the cream has been taken off, is employed, in considerable quantity, by wine and spirit merchants, for clarifying or fining down turbid white wine, arrack, and weak spirits. Nearly all the cheese that is consumed in the British islands is made of cow's milk. For this purpose the milk is curdled by mixture with a substance called rennet, which is prepared from the inner membrane of a calf's stomach; and the curd, thus formed, after being cleared of the whey or watery part contained in the milk, is collected together, pressed, and dried for use. The richest of all the English kinds of cheese is that called Stilton cheese. This, however, is not, as its name would import, made in the town of Stilton, but in various parts of Huntingdonshire, and in Leicestershire, Rutland, and Northamptonshire. Stilton cheese is indebted, for its excellence, both to the rich pastures on which the cows are fed, and to the peculiar process by which it is made. It is not sufficiently mellowed for use until two years old, and is not in a state to be eaten till it is decayed, blue, and moist. To hasten the ripening of Stilton cheeses, it is not unusual to place them in buckets, and to cover these with horse-dung. Cheshire is famous for its cheese, which is generally much salter and more smart upon the palate than any other English kind. In Wiltshire and Gloucestershire much cheese of rich and excellent quality is made. The neighbourhood of Chedder, in the county of Somerset, produces a very admirable kind, which is little inferior in taste to Parmesan, and is supposed to owe its peculiar quality to the cows feeding in rich pastures, and particularly on the flote fescue grass (Festuca fluitans), with which many of those pastures abound. Cottenham cheese is a soft white cheese, for which we are chiefly indebted to a small village of that name situated a few miles from Cambridge. In the neighbourhood of Bath and York, and also in Lincolnshire, a rich and excellent kind of cream cheese is made. In Scotland a species of cheese is produced which has long been known and celebrated under the name of Dunlop cheese, from a parish of that name in Ayrshire, in the neighbourhood of which it is principally made. Of foreign kinds of cheese the most celebrated is Parmesan. This is made of ewes' milk, or of a mixture of ewes' or goats' milk with that of the cow. We receive it from various parts of Italy, and also from other countries, although the name would import it to be made exclusively in the neighbourhood of Parma. In the district of Gruyere, a small town in the canton of Friburg in Switzerland, a well-known kind of cheese of large size is made, which goes by that name. Gouda cheese is famous in Holland. The common Dutch cheeses are of globular shape, and each three or four pounds in weight. They are prepared in the same manner as Cheshire cheese, with the exception that, instead of rennet, the Dutch use spirit of vitriol (sulphuric acid). Hence this kind of cheese has a sharp and saline taste, which is said to exempt it from the depredations of mites. Green Swiss cheese has a strong and peculiar flavour derived from the fragrant powder of melliot (Trifolium melilotus officinalis). This cheese is, however, to many persons, very disagreeable. When milk has been suffered to stand a few hours, a substance called cream rises to the surface. This is skimmed off for several uses, but principally for the To make butter keep for a greater length of time than it would otherwise do, it is salted and packed in small tubs or barrels; and, in this state, it is a very considerable article of commerce. In the salting and packing of butter many abuses are practised, to increase its bulk and weight, against which there is an express act of parliament. Lumps of good butter are sometimes laid, for a little depth, at the top of a barrel, with butter of inferior quality beneath it. Sometimes the butter is packed hollow; and sometimes the exterior part of the butter is good whilst the whole interior is bad. After the butter has been separated there remains in the churn a kind of whey which is called butter-milk, and the quality of which greatly depends on the manner of churning. Before it turns sour, butter-milk is a favourite beverage in the families of some farmers. It is also occasionally used as a wash for the face, being considered a remedy against freckles; but it is principally applied for the feeding of pigs. The flesh of oxen constitutes the kind of food which we call beef. This is usually eaten in a recent state, but is sometimes, particularly in the northern parts of England, in Ireland, and Holland, salted in the manner of bacon, and in this state, it is a considerable article of trade. It affords a strong and invigorating nutriment, superior to any that we are acquainted with. Beef-tea is a preparation commonly made for invalids and convalescents, and consists of an infusion The skins of cattle, after they have undergone the processes of tanning and currying, are employed for making harness, saddles, bridles, the soles of shoes, and for various other purposes. Calves' skins are used for the upper leathers of shoes, and by saddlers, book-binders, &c. The skins of sucking calves are manufactured into vellum, a thin substance which is employed by book-binders; also for writing and drawing upon, and for other uses. From the parings and other offals of the hides of oxen, and the parings and scraps of the legs, by boiling them in water to the consistence of a jelly, straining them through a wicket basket, suffering the impurities to subside, and then boiling them a second time, is made glue. This, in a state of jelly, is poured into flat frames or moulds; when congealed, it is cut into square pieces, and afterwards dried, by being suspended in a coarse kind of netting. The leg-bones of oxen, after having been whitened by boiling them with quick-lime, are used in the manufacture of the handles of knives and forks, and for innumerable other purposes. This substance, when good, is nearly allied to ivory: but is easily distinguished by its porous nature, its coarse grain, and its wanting the beautiful white veins which are so conspicuous in ivory. Bones, after having been burnt or calcined, are used by the refiners of gold and silver. The horns of oxen are used for many of the same purposes as bone. After having been softened by heat they are capable of being moulded into almost any shape. They are sometimes stained in such manner as to imitate tortoise-shell, and they are then used for the making of combs. By a peculiar process they are rendered semi-transparent, and, when formed into thin plates, are employed instead of glass for lanthorns. Horn was the first transparent substance that was ever used for lanthorns and windows. Tallow is the fat of sheep and oxen, cleared of its fibrous parts by straining and other management. It is further improved and clarified by the addition of alum, and, in this state, is used for the making of candles. Tallow is also a chief ingredient in soap. From the feet of oxen is procured a kind of oil, called Neats'-foot oil, which is of great use in the preparing and softening of leather. The blood is employed in the clarifying of sugar, and great quantities of it, during the late war, were exported from London to Sweden for this purpose. The skins of the intestines are used for beating gold leaf betwixt; and these, under the name of gold-beaters' skin, are afterwards considered efficacious as an adhesive plaster for healing small wounds. Of gold-beaters' skin the French manufacturers of toys sometimes construct little balloons for the amusement of children. A few years ago there was, in London, an exhibition of animals formed of this substance and inflated with air. 102. British cattle are considered preferable to the cattle of any other country in the world. Those called Devonshire cattle, which are distinguished by their mahogany colour and light yellow horns, are adjudged to be the best of any. They are much used in agricultural labours, being peculiarly fitted for draught both by their hardiness and activity. The beef of this breed is peculiarly excellent. Their skins are thin, but improve much in tanning; and the tallow is of peculiarly good quality. 103. In the northern parts of England there is a very useful kind, called Holderness or Dutch cattle. These, in size and weight exceed all the British cattle. The cows have great celebrity for yielding a very extraordinary quantity of milk; instances have been mentioned of their yielding thirty-six quarts in a day. This stock is well known in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, being that which is generally kept by the London cow-keepers. The animal exhibited in London 104. The Lancashire or Long-horned Cattle, are much esteemed for the dairy. The cows yield from sixteen to twenty-four quarts of milk per day; and, on an average, about 300 weight of cheese per annum. They are hardy animals, readily become fat, and produce remarkably well-flavoured beef. But they are chiefly celebrated for the thickness and substance of their hides, which are very valuable, and sell at high prices. In many instances the hides have been known to produce a greater price per pound than the beef. 105. Alderney Cattle are a favourite breed, that have long been known and esteemed, in the southern counties of England, for their milk, which is richer than that of any other breed. These animals are of small size, the cows seldom exceeding the height of four feet; yet they are known to produce so much milk as to yield from 200 to more than 300 pounds' weight of butter per annum. In the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney, where these cattle are chiefly bred, they are sometimes employed in ploughing; but their greatest use is in carting, and, in this respect, they are found to answer peculiarly well in bad roads and hilly countries. Their beef is generally yellow or very high coloured; but it is peculiarly fine in the grain, and of excellent flavour. 106. Scotland is famous for a small kind of black cattle, with fine white upright horns tipped with black, called Highland Stots, or Kyloe Cattle. Having great celebrity for the fineness and sweetness of their beef, as well as the facility with which they are fattened, these cattle are in such esteem as to be driven into the southern counties of England, and occasionally to supply even the London markets. The cows, in proportion to their size, yield a great quantity of rich milk. 107. The YAK, or GRUNTING OX (Bos grunniens), is an animal of large size, with round, upright, and slender horns, a lump on the shoulders, long and pendant hair, white on the back and tail; and the tail somewhat resembling that of a horse. In a wild state this animal is an inhabitant of the mountains of Thibet. With the oriental princes the white tails of the yak are of great value for military standards; and the use of them is very ancient. These tails are also employed, in many parts of the East, to ornament the trappings both of elephants and horses; and, when mounted on a silver handle, they are used by the principal men of India as a brush to chase away flies. The Chinese dye the hair of a red colour, and form tufts for their caps of it. Many beautiful kinds of stuffs are woven of a fine wool which these animals have next to their skin. 108. The MUSK OX (Bos moschatus) is a North American animal of small size, with horns broad, and approaching each other at the base, bent downward, and the tips upward and pointed; a protuberance on the shoulder, and the body covered with long silky hair of a dusky red tinge. To the North American Indians the musk ox is an animal of considerable importance. Its flesh furnishes them with an useful food, which, though it has a musky flavour, is not on that account the less esteemed. This flesh, in a frozen state, is also an article of traffic, with the British and American forts, during winter. At the roots of the long hair of the musk ox there is a peculiarly beautiful ash-coloured fleece, which is finer and softer than silk, and may be wrought into very elegant articles of dress. It is of the long hair of these animals that the Esquimaux Indians make those caps which give them their very extraordinary appearance, by the ends being contrived so to fall down over their face, as to protect them from the bites of musquetoes. The skins are convertible into leather, and are 109. The AMERICAN BISON (Bos Americanus) is a large species of ox, with round and distant horns which point outward, a long and woolly mane, and a large fleshy protuberance on the shoulders. These animals inhabit, in immense herds, the savannahs and marshes of the interior of North America. As they are capable of being domesticated, and, in this state, are sufficiently tractable for the purpose, they are sometimes rendered useful for agricultural labours. The hunting of the wild bison is a common and very arduous employment of the natives of the interior of America, particularly those living adjacent to the rivers Mississippi and Ohio. The flesh of these animals is used as food, and the fatty protuberance on the shoulders is esteemed a great delicacy. The tongues, which are reckoned superior to those of oxen, are frequently transported to New Orleans, where they always have a ready sale. When the animals are quite fat they are said to yield sometimes as much as 150 pounds weight of tallow each. The latter is so important an article of commerce, that, in many instances, the hunters cut out only the tongue and tallow, leaving the remainder of the carcase to be devoured by wild beasts. Powder-flasks are made of the horns. The skins are capable of being converted into an excellent buff leather; and, when dressed with the hair on, the lighter skins serve the Indians as beds, and for clothes, gloves, and shoes. Some persons use them as blankets, and find them a very warm and pleasant covering. The hair is spun and woven into various articles of clothing, which are both durable and useful, and are peculiarly soft and pleasant to the wearer. 110. The BUFFALO (Bos bubalus) is a species of ox, which has large horns of compressed form, with the outer edge sharp, growing straight for a considerable length from their base, and then bent slightly upward: on the shoulders there is a bony In a wild state these animals are natives of Asia and Africa; and they are domesticated in India, and in some of the warmer parts of Europe. Although the buffalo is naturally a savage and ferocious beast, yet, when properly trained, it is very serviceable to mankind. These animals are used both for draught and burthen, and are sometimes even trained for the saddle. They are guided by a cord attached to a ring, which is made to pass through the cartilage of their nose. Two buffaloes, harnessed to a carriage, are considered able to draw as much as four horses. The milk of the buffalo, though not so good as that of the cow, is in greater quantity, and in much esteem. Ghee is a kind of butter made from the milk of these animals, and clarified. This is an article of commerce in various parts of India, and is generally conveyed in bags or bottles made of the hide, each of which holds from ten to forty gallons. The flesh is said somewhat to resemble beef, but to be of a darker colour: that of the calves is considered peculiarly delicate. Of the skin is made a strong and durable leather, which, under the name of buff leather, is applicable to a great variety of uses. The horns have a fine grain, are strong, and bear a good polish; and are, therefore, much used by cutlers and other artificers. They are occasionally imported into this country from Bengal. These animals usually associate in large herds, in marshy and woody plains. So great is their ferocity that the hunters are at all times fearful of attempting to kill them, unless they are perfectly sure of their aim. They swim over even the widest rivers with a facility which can be equalled by few quadrupeds. 111. The CAPE BUFFALO (Bos cafer) is an excessively strong and ferocious beast of the ox tribe, which has thick horns that are rugged at the base, and lie so flat as to cover almost all the top of the head. These animals are found in herds of a hundred and fifty or two hundred together, in the plains of Caffraria, and other parts of the south of Africa. There are no animals of the ox tribe so savage, so much dreaded, nor so wantonly mischievous as these: they attack and destroy mankind without being themselves previously assailed, and commit devastations of the most alarming kind in the neighbourhood of the places where they are found. They are killed on account of their flesh, which is lean, but juicy and of high flavour; and also on account of their hides, which are so thick and tough that even musket-proof targets are formed of them. Of these hides also the strongest and best thongs for harness are made. The Hottentots, who are never inclined to take much trouble in dressing their victuals, cut the flesh off into slices, and then smoke, and at the same time half broil, it over a few coals. They also frequently eat it in a state of absolute putrefaction. ORDER VI.—BELLUÆ.112. The HORSE (Equus caballus, Fig. 30) is distinguished from every other quadruped by having his hoofs single, and his tail covered with long hair. The male has the name of horse, the female of mare, and the young one of foal. Wild horses are found, in large herds, in Siberia, and several other parts of Asia, as well as in some parts of Africa. Endowed with the most useful qualifications, the horse is an animal of the greatest importance to the inhabitants of all temperate climates. Though naturally spirited, active, and intrepid, he submits with patience to carry burthens, and to toil, for days together, along roads and in agricultural labours. And, if treated with care and attention, he perseveringly adapts himself to our wants and conveniences. In some parts of Tartary these animals have even been made objects of divine worship, originating, no doubt, in a principle of gratitude for the services they perform. In no country of Europe is so much attention paid to the breeding and training of horses as in England. The consequence has been that the British horses are superior, both in swiftness of foot, and in strength and perseverance in the course, to any others in this quarter of the world. The fleetest of all the British horses is, of course, the race-horse: and, for short distances, none of the Arabians, which have been tried in England, have proved in any degree equal to him. The celebrated horse called Childers, in the year 1721, ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, carrying a weight of nine stone two pounds. Had the different racing meetings at Newmarket, York, and other places, no other view than to call together great concourses of people for amusement, their tendency would be injurious rather than beneficial to society; but when it is considered that such meetings are the cause of great emulation in the breeding of a race of animals so valuable as the horse, their utility will be sufficiently apparent. The English hunters are allowed to be among the noblest, most elegant, and most useful animals that are known; and the value of our hackneys, or road horses, may be imagined when it is stated that many of them are able to trot at the rate of more than fifteen miles per hour. So great is the strength of these animals, that instances have been mentioned of a single horse drawing, for a short space, the weight of three tons; and of In Scotland there is a breed of small horses, or ponies, which are known by the name of galloways. The best of these seldom exceed the height of fourteen hands and a half,[2] and are uncommonly active, hardy, and spirited animals. The Shetland Islands produce a race called shelties, which, though exceedingly diminutive in size, are, in other respects, highly excellent. In Ireland the cart-horses, though of sufficient size, are ill-shaped and bad. The saddle-horses appear naturally as good as ours; but, in general, they are ill kept, worse groomed, and still worse shod. The French horses are extremely various in their kind; but few of them can be called fine. The best saddle-horses of France are produced in the vicinity of Limosin, and in Normandy. The latter, though not so valuable as hunters, are preferable to all the rest for war. Lower Normandy is famous for fine carriage horses. A prevailing fault in the horses of France is too great a width across the shoulders. The Dutch horses are said to be very good for carriages; and great numbers of them are annually sent into France. The Flemish horses are far inferior to those of Holland. They have generally large heads and broad feet; and their legs are subject to dropsical swellings. Germany affords some fine horses, but the generality of them are heavy and thick-winded. Those of The Danish horses are so large in size, and so well set, that they were formerly preferred, as carriage-horses, to all others. They are extremely various in colour; and many of them are pyed and spotted, which is not the case with the horses of other countries. In Spain the horses are very beautiful and excellent. They have a long thick neck, with a flowing mane. The head is large; the ears are long, but well placed; the eyes full of fire; the air noble and spirited; the shoulders thick, and the chest broad. They have great agility and stateliness. Their prevailing colours are black and light chesnut. The Italian horses were formerly much finer than they are at present, the breeding of them having long been neglected. The kingdom of Naples, however, still affords fine horses, especially for carriages; but they have, in general, large heads and thick necks. They are also untractable, and consequently are difficult to be trained; but these defects are, in some degree, compensated by the largeness of their size, their spirit, and the beauty of their motions. There is a prevalent and erroneous notion that the flesh of the horse is bitter and unpalatable. In several parts of Asia wild horses are killed almost exclusively for food; and the Calmuc Tartars, in particular, are so partial to this kind of flesh, that they seldom eat any other. Horses' flesh is constantly exposed for sale in the markets of Tonquin. A celebrated British writer (Dr. Anderson) has strongly recommended the fattening of horses as food in this country, and urges his recommendation by declaring that horse-flesh is superior in delicacy of flavour to beef! The Tartars drink the milk of the mare, and also convert it into butter and cheese. One of their most The skin of the horse, after it is tanned, is made into collars, traces, and other parts of harness; and, under the name of cordovan, is also used for shoes. The hair forms a considerable branch of trade. That of the tail is employed for weaving the covers or seats of chairs and sofas; for making sieves, fishing-lines, and the bows of musical instruments. The inferior hair of the tail and mane is employed for the stuffing of bolsters and mattresses. For this purpose it is baked, by which it is rendered one of the most elastic substances, for couches, that are known. The short hair of the horse is used for stuffing saddles and horse-collars. If horses be well treated, and properly attended to, they will sometimes live to the age of fifty years; but, during great part of this time, they are generally so decrepid as to be unable to perform any services whatever for their owners. To ascertain the age of a horse, reference is generally had to the teeth. Deeply sunk eye-pits are usually considered a criterion, though not an infallible one, of an old horse; and, for colts or young horses, attention must be paid to the appearance of their coat, and of the hairs of the mane and tail, as it is not until they have changed their first teeth that any correct judgment of their age can be formed from the mouth. The deceptions of horse-dealers in changing the appearance of the teeth, and in various other particulars relative to the horse, render great caution necessary in the purchase of these animals. 113. The ASS (Equus asinus) is characterized by his tail having long hairs only towards the extremity, and the male having a blackish cross over the shoulders. Wild asses associate in herds in the mountainous deserts of Tartary, Persia, and India; and also in some parts of Africa. This animal, which by care and attention, is rendered, in Spain and some other countries, an elegant, tractable, and valuable servant of man, is entirely neglected by us; and, in England, has consequently degenerated into a stupid and inactive beast. The Sacred Writings speak of asses being in general use throughout the Eastern countries, both for the saddle, and as animals of draught and burthen. With the Romans they were in such estimation that Pliny speaks of a male ass having been sold at a price which exceeded 3000l. of our money. In Spain the best asses are sold at very high prices, sometimes as much as 100 guineas and upwards each. Doomed as it is with us to slavery and ill treatment, we cannot be surprised that the ass, in many instances, should appear a stubborn and intractable animal. But whenever it is well treated, it is remarkable for meekness, patience, and docility; it submits quietly to chastisement, is temperate in its food, and is contented to feed on such vegetables as most other animals would refuse. In proportion to its size, the ass is capable of supporting great fatigue, and of dragging and carrying heavy burthens. Asses are chiefly employed for drawing hucksters' carts, and similar burthens; and, if properly trained, there can be no doubt but they would constitute the cheapest team that could be used. Being more hardy than horses, these animals are preferred to them for journeys across the deserts of Asia. Most of the Musselmen pilgrims use them in their long and laborious journeys to Mecca. In the principal streets of Cairo, asses stand ready saddled for hire, and answer the same purposes as hackney coaches in London. The person who lets an ass accompanies him, running behind to goad him on. Asses' milk is light, easy of digestion, and so nutritious as to be recommended in many disorders. It is The flesh of the wild ass is so much esteemed in Persia that it is admitted even to the imperial table. The Persians have an adage expressive of their high opinion of it. Notwithstanding this, the flesh of the domestic ass is so bad as food, that it is said few persons would be able to eat of it. From their hardness and elasticity, the skins of these animals are capable of being used for various purposes. They are manufactured into shoes, heads for drums, and, when varnished over in a peculiar manner, are cut into leaves for pocket-books. The inhabitants of some of the Eastern countries make of asses' skin the substance called sagri or shagreen. At Astracan, and throughout Persia, there are great manufactories of this article. It is not naturally granulated; this roughness being altogether effected by art. Of the bones of the ass the ancients are said to have made their best sounding flutes. 114. The Mule, or mixed produce betwixt the ass and the mare, is a very hardy and useful animal. Its size is larger, its head and ears smaller, and its coat smoother than those of the ass. In countries where the breed of asses is sufficiently large for obtaining mules of considerable size, these are preferred to nearly all animals for cheapness, durability, and general convenience, as beasts of burthen. In England they have never been propagated to any extent; and the few that have been reared in this country have, in general, been the produce of such diminutive parents, as to exhibit only a puny race, by no means calculated for the services of which a well-managed breed would be capable. 115. The HIPPOPOTAMUS, or RIVER-HORSE (Hippopotamus amphibius), is an African quadruped of immense bulk, with large head, extremely wide mouth, strong teeth, and thick and short legs, each terminated by four hoofs. The body is of brownish colour, and covered with short and thinly set hair. One of these animals, which M. le Vaillant killed in the South of Africa, measured nearly eleven feet in length, and about nine in circumference. In the immediate vicinity of rivers, in several parts of Africa, even as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, the hippopotamus is occasionally seen. Notwithstanding his bulk and strength, he is an animal of considerable timidity; and whenever he is surprised, he plunges into the water, and walks about at the bottom with great ease, rising to the surface about once every ten minutes to breathe. He feeds on plants of various kinds, and sometimes proves very destructive in the plantations, not only by the quantity of food which he devours, but also by treading down and crushing with his feet much more than he eats. The hippopotamus is one of those animals whose tusks are used as ivory; and, from their always preserving their original whiteness and purity, they are considered superior to the tusks of the elephant. They are each from twelve to fourteen inches in length, and weigh from six to ten pounds. Dentists sometimes manufacture them into artificial teeth, for which they are well adapted. Of the hide, which in some parts is nearly two inches thick, the inhabitants of Africa make excellent whips, which, after a little use, become very pliable. The flesh, when the animals are in good condition, is said to be tender and well flavoured, particularly that of the parts near the breast. It is even sometimes admitted to the tables of the colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. The Hottentots consider it so great a delicacy that they eat it even in an half putrid state. Professor Thunberg states, that he one day passed a Hottentot's tent, which had been pitched for the purpose of consuming the body of an hippopotamus that had been killed sometime before; and says, that the inhabitants of the tent were in the midst of such stench, that the travellers could hardly pass them without being suffocated. The feet are considered peculiarly fine eating; and the tongue, when salted and dried, is in great esteem at the Cape. 116. The HOG (Sus scrofa, Fig. 16) is distinguishable by its prominent tusks, the flat termination of its snout, its feet being cloven, the fore part of its back being bristly, and the tail hairy. The male is called boar, and the female sow. The appellations of swine and pig are given to the whole breed, though the latter is more peculiarly applicable to the young animals. The parent stock of our domestic swine is the wild boar, which inhabits the forests of France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, as well as those of Persia and India. Wild boars usually live in families, and are hunted, as an amusement, in all the parts of the world where they are found. The flesh of the wild animals, if they are not old, is said to be much superior to that of our domestic swine. That of the young ones is peculiarly delicate. Of an old wild boar the head only is eatable. The advantages derived from the breeding of swine are very great. Their flesh, which has the appellation of pork, is in universal request; and is of peculiar importance in a commercial view, as it takes salt better, and is capable of being kept longer, than any other kind of meat that we are acquainted with. Pork, after having been salted, is sometimes hung up to dry in the open air; but, generally, it is smoked by being hung in The Jews and Mahometans abstain from this species of food from a religious principle, and even consider themselves defiled by touching it. The inhabitants of China, on the contrary, are so excessively fond of pork, that multitudes, from this partiality alone, are said to have been prevented from conversion to Mahometanism. The fat of swine differs, in its situation, from that of almost every other quadruped, as it covers the animals all over, and forms a thick, distinct, and continued layer betwixt the flesh and the skin, somewhat like the blubber in whales (118). It is called lard, and is applicable to various uses, both culinary and medicinal; The skin, when properly dressed, is used for the seats of saddles; by book-binders, and other artisans. In China hogs' skins are much in request by shoe-makers. All the shoes that are sold to Europeans at Canton are made of hogs' leather, the hair having previously been burnt off with a hot iron. In our own country, when swine are killed for food, it is not customary to strip off the skin, but merely to rid it of the bristles, by scalding the animals, after they are dead, with hot water, or singeing them with lighted straw. Consequently the hogs' skins which we use are chiefly imported from abroad. The bristles of swine are made into brushes of various kinds, and are also employed by shoe-makers in the place of needles. Among the other uses of swine, it may not generally be known that, in the island of Minorca, they are employed as beasts of draught. They are frequently yoked to the plough with asses; and one writer speaks of having seen a cow, a sow, and two young horses, all yoked together, and of these the sow drew the best. In some parts of Italy swine are used in hunting for truffles, an eatable species of fungus which grow at the depth of some inches in the ground. A cord being tied to the hind leg of one of these animals, the beast is driven into certain pastures; and we are told that truffles are always to be found wherever he stops and begins to turn up the earth with his nose. Most writers have asserted that swine are long-lived, but few instances are allowed to occur of their ORDER VII.—CETE, OR CETACEOUS ANIMALS.117. The NARWAL, or SEA-UNICORN (Monodon monoceros) is a marine animal from twenty to thirty feet in length, with a long, tapering, twisted, and pointed weapon of ivory in front of the head. It has a small fin on each side of the breast, in place of fore feet, an horizontally flattened tail, and a spiracle or breathing hole on the highest part of the head. The skin is white, variegated with numerous black spots on the upper parts of the body; and the weapon is generally from five to eight feet in length. These animals are found in the Greenland seas, and they occasionally migrate southward off the British coasts. Their name of narh-wal signifies a whale that subsists on dead bodies. The Greenlanders pursue the narwals as they do other whales, chiefly on account of the oil which they obtain from them. This is considered superior, in many respects, to the oil of the great whale (118), and is used by them both with food and to burn in their lamps. These people also eat the flesh of the narwal prepared by fire, dried in a half putrid state, and sometimes even raw; and they are also partial to the intestines as food. The tendons serve them as a strong kind of It has of late years been ascertained that the Japanese have a very extraordinary opinion of the medical virtues of these tusks. A Dutch merchant, on his return to Europe, happened, among other curiosities, to transmit one of them to a friend in Japan, who by the sale of it became extremely rich. From that time the Dutch wrote, to their correspondents in Europe, for as many as could be sent, and great profit was made of them; and, although by the continued importation, the price has since been considerably diminished, it still continues very high. Narwals are quick, active, and inoffensive animals. They swim with considerable velocity. When harpooned they dive in the same manner as the whale, but not so deep. They generally descend about two hundred fathoms, after which they return to the surface, where they are dispatched, in a few minutes, with a lance. 118. The GREAT or GREENLAND WHALE (BalÆna mysticetus, Pl. 1, Fig. 17) is a marine animal of immense magnitude, measuring from fifty to eighty feet in length, of which the head is nearly one third, and having several horny blades in the upper jaw, and a spiracle or breathing hole on the upper part of the head. The bulk of these animals is such that their greatest circumference is nearly equal to their length; and their weight has been known to exceed 400,000 pounds. The mouth is of enormous size, extending as far back as to the eyes; and the tongue is sometimes eighteen or twenty feet in length, and nine or ten in width. Notwithstanding this, the gullet, or passage of The great whales are inhabitants of the ocean, and found chiefly in the Greenland and other seas, near the Arctic Pole; they, however, sometimes migrate so far south as to be seen in the neighbourhood of the British shores. The animals of the whale tribe are of great use to mankind in a commercial view. They are pursued by the inhabitants of nearly all the maritime countries of Europe, and to us are not merely a source of profit, but, from the whale fishery requiring many ships, are the means of training a great number of seamen. To this fishery it is that we are indebted for those two valuable articles—whale or train oil, and whalebone. The fat of all the whales has the name of blubber, and is principally found beneath the skin, to the depth of ten or twelve inches. Its use, to the animals, appears to be for the double purpose of poising their bodies, and keeping off the immediate contact of the water from the flesh, the continued cold of which, in the frozen climates of the North, would tend to chill the blood. The whalebone supplies, in these animals, the place of teeth, for catching and securing their food. It is attached to the upper jaw, and is arranged in thin plates or blades, sometimes near seven hundred in number, and parallel to each other on both sides of the mouth. The largest blades measure from ten to The number of ships employed in the whale fishery is very great; but, in consequence of the incessant pursuit of these animals for the last two centuries, their numbers have been greatly diminished. One of the most fortunate years that ever was known was 1697, when the following ships entered the bay of Greenland:
The year 1814 was a singularly prosperous one to the British whale fishery: 76 ships, fitted out from different ports of this country, obtained 1437 whales, besides seals, &c. The British ships, during four years, ending with 1817, returned with 5030 whales, which produced 54,508 tons of oil, and 2697 tons of whalebone. The season for the whale-fishery commences in May, and continues through the months of June and July; but the ships must come away before the end of August, otherwise they might be blocked up and destroyed by the ice. Every ship sent out from this country carries along with it six or seven boats, each of which has one harpooner, one man at the rudder, one man to manage the line, and four men as rowers. In each boat there are also two or three harpoons, several spears, and about six lines, each 120 fathoms in length, fastened together. As soon as the men in the boats discover a whale, swimming near the surface of the water, they approach to the spot, and strike a harpoon deeply into his body. To this instrument the line is attached; and on the whale The next operation is to extract the whalebone. This is done entire, along with the gums, which are hoisted on the deck, where the blades are cut and separated, and left until the men have leisure to scrape and clear them. The tongue consists of a soft and spongy fat substance, which, when boiled down, yields five or six barrels of oil; the oil that is drained from the two upper jaw-bones is the peculiar perquisite of the captain. As an encouragement to the whale fishery, a bounty of twenty shillings is allowed by Government for every ton of blubber which is imported into this country. From Milford, in Pembrokeshire, and some other British sea-ports, vessels are also fitted out for the South Seas, in pursuit of whales which frequent the ocean in those torrid climates, particularly near the coast of South America. The inhabitants of Greenland, and of other northern countries of the world, eat almost every part of the whale. The skin, the tail, and the fins, are sometimes eaten even raw. The flesh is eaten both fresh and Whales are sometimes seen in troops sporting about near the surface of the ocean. They spout water through the spiracles on the top of their heads, with the rushing noise of a cataract, and to the height even of thirty or forty feet. Such are their powers in the water that, in some instances, their motion through that element has been calculated at thirty feet in a second, or upwards of twenty miles in an hour. Great caution is required in attacking them, as, with a single blow of their tail, they are able to upset a tolerably large boat. They feed only on the smaller kinds of fish and other marine animals, as their throat is not sufficiently wide to admit of their swallowing any substance of large size, and they are not furnished with teeth to cut or grind their food into small pieces. The females produce only one young one each: this they suckle for many months, and are peculiarly affectionate and attentive towards it. These animals are occasionally stranded on the British shores, in which case, by the ancient laws of the land, they are deemed royal fish; the king being entitled to the anterior, and the queen to the posterior half. 119. The FIN-BACKED WHALE, or FIN-FISH (BalÆna physalus), is a marine animal from sixty to ninety feet in length, with a thick fin on the hinder part of the back, the muzzle tapering, and the jaws somewhat pointed. This species is of more slender form than the last, its greatest circumference not in general exceeding fifteen or twenty feet. The spiracle or breathing hole is double, and situated on the middle of the fore part of the head; and the colour of the body is generally dark or blackish olive above, and white below. The whole surface appears polished and shining. These whales are chiefly found in the northern frozen ocean, and particularly about the coast of Greenland and Spitzbergen. But they sometimes enter the Mediterranean, and are not uncommon in the South American and Indian seas. Although a smaller proportion of oil is obtained from these than from the great whales, it is of much better quality than that. The inhabitants of Greenland consume it with their food, preferably to burning it in lamps, if oil of less value can be obtained for that purpose. The whalebone is too short and narrow to be of much value. From the small quantity of oil, and little value of the whalebone, added to the difficulty and danger which are attendant on the pursuit of these active and powerful animals, they are not very eagerly sought after by the whale-fishers. We are assured that the flesh of the fin-backed whale is as well tasted, and, in every respect, as excellent, as that of the sturgeon. In most of the northern countries, both of Europe and America, the fins, the skin, and the tendons, all serve for many useful purposes. There are other species of whales which are useful, in a certain degree, to mankind, for the oil that is yielded by their bodies; but few of them are objects of pursuit, on account of the difficulty there is in killing them, or of the very inferior quantity of oil which they afford. The blades of their whalebone are also too small to be of any use as an object of commerce. 120. The BLUNT-HEADED CACHALOT, or SPERMACETI WHALE (Physeter macrocephalus) is a marine animal from sixty to seventy feet in length, with large teeth in the under jaw, which fit into corresponding sockets of the upper jaw; the orifice of the spiracle single, and at the upper part of the extremity of the muzzle; and without any fin upon the back. The head occupies about one-third of the length of the whole body. The colour of this whale is generally black, but, in the old animals, the under parts become whitish. The skin is smooth, oily, and almost as soft to the touch as silk. It is most frequently seen in the northern ocean, in the latitudes of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Iceland; yet it is occasionally observed off the British coasts, and sometimes even in the Mediterranean. Lucrative as the several parts of these animals are, The oil that is obtained from them is not in great quantity, but is of excellent quality. In burning it yields a bright flame, without exhaling any noxious smell. The white and fatty substance known in our shops by the name of spermaceti is found in an immense cavity of the skull, distinct from that which contains the brain. This sometimes occupies nearly the whole front and upper part of the head, and, in some instances, is known to measure sixteen or eighteen feet in length. It is divided horizontally into two parts by a strong membrane, and each of these parts is again subdivided, by vertical membranes, into numerous cells, which communicate with each other, and contain the spermaceti. This, which is frequently mistaken for the brain, is sometimes found in such quantity as to fill eighteen or twenty butts. Whilst the animals are alive, the spermaceti is in a fluid state; but, when dead, it is found in somewhat solid lumps, and is of whitish colour. Spermaceti is of considerable use, medicinally, in pains and erosions of the intestines, in coughs, and other complaints. It is also applied externally in ointments, and for other purposes. It is converted into a very beautiful kind of candles, which appear to be a medium between those made of wax and tallow. Good spermaceti is in fine white flakes, glossy, and The flesh of this kind of whale is of pale red colour, appears not much unlike coarse pork, and is not unpalatable as food. The skin, intestines, and tendons, are all useful to the inhabitants of the northern countries of Europe. The tongue is considered excellent eating. The teeth are formed into the heads of spears and arrows, and may even be used as ivory; the bones are sometimes applied as timber for tents and cottages; and a very tenacious glue or size is manufactured from the fibres of the flesh. It is to these, and some other animals nearly allied to them, that we are indebted for the drug or perfume called ambergris. This is generally found in the stomach, but sometimes in the intestines, and in lumps from three to twelve inches in thickness, mixed with many substances very different from itself, such as macerated vegetables, the remains of marine shell-animals, the bones and other hard parts of fish; and the ambergris itself frequently contains the beaks or jaws of different species of sepiÆ, or cuttle-fish. The latter are the cause of those yellowish, whitish, or dusky spots that are often observable in this drug. As we see it in the shops, ambergris is an opake substance, which varies in solidity, according to its exposure to a warm or cold atmosphere. It is however, in general, sufficiently hard to be broken. Its smell is extremely powerful and agreeable to some persons, but unpleasant and even nauseous to others. When first taken from the stomach or intestines of the animals which produce it, ambergris is quite soft to the touch; and, as may well be conjectured from the situation in which it is found, Oil, spermaceti, and ambergris, are supposed to be yielded in greater or less quantity from every species of cachalot. 121. The COMMON or TRUE DOLPHIN (Delphinus delphis) is a cetaceous animal nine or ten feet in length, with a row of large teeth in each jaw, and a single orifice near the top of the head; an oblong and roundish body, a fin on the back, and the snout narrow and pointed, having a broad transverse band or projection of the skin on its upper part. The body is black, with a bluish tinge above, and white below. Dolphins are found in nearly every part of the ocean. Few animals have had greater celebrity than these. Their activity in playing about near the surface of the ocean, their undulating motion, and the evolutions and gambols of whole shoals of them together, occasionally afford to mariners and others a very entertaining spectacle. By the ancient Greeks and Romans dolphins were supposed to entertain a kind of friendship towards mankind, and were consecrated to the gods. In cases of shipwreck they were believed to be in waiting to rescue and carry on shore the unfortunate mariners. Pliny, the Roman naturalist, was credulous enough to believe that dolphins had been rendered so tame as to allow of persons mounting on their backs, and being carried in safety over a considerable space of sea. As these animals, in their progress through the water, often assume a crooked form, in order to spring forward with the greater force, both ancient and modern artists have depicted the dolphin with its back curved. The flesh of the dolphin is hard and insipid, yet it was formerly in repute as food even in this country. We are informed by Dr. Caius, that a dolphin which was caught, in his time, at Shoreham, in Sussex, was sent to the Duke of Norfolk, who had part of it roasted It is to be remarked that seamen give the name of dolphin to another kind of animal, the Dorado (CoryphÆna hippuris). The latter, however, is a genuine species of fish, and not, like the present, a warm-blooded and mammiferous animal. 122. The PORPESSE (Delphinus phocÆna) is a cetaceous animal, six or seven feet in length, with a somewhat conical body, a row of pointed teeth in each jaw, a single spiracle near the top of the head, a broad fin about the middle of the back, and a short and bluntish muzzle. Its colour is bluish black above, and white beneath, and the skin is bright, smooth, and soft to the touch. These animals are found in the Baltic sea, near the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, in all parts of the Atlantic, and even in the Pacific Ocean. In most of their habits the porpesses have a near resemblance to the dolphin, but they are not so active. They generally associate in troops of from six or seven to thirty and upwards in number, and feed on fish of all kinds, but particularly on such as swim in large shoals, as mackerel, herrings, and the different species of the cod. In proportion to the size of their body, porpesses yield a great quantity of excellent oil; but from the difficulty there is in catching them, in sufficient number to repay the labour, they are seldom thought worth pursuing. The flesh, as well as that of the dolphin, was formerly in great estimation in England. Among the provisions for the celebrated inthronization feast of George Neville, Archbishop of York, in the reign of Edward the Fourth, are enumerated no fewer than twelve porpesses and seals. 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