  220. The BREAD FRUIT is a large globular berry of pale green colour, about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular six-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yellow. The tree that produces it (Artocarpus incisa, Fig. 57) grows wild in Otaheite and other islands of the South Seas, is about forty feet high, has large and spreading branches, and large We are informed, in Captain Cook's first voyage round the world, that the edible part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core; and that it is white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. It is generally used immediately when gathered; if it be kept more than twenty-four hours it becomes hard and chokey. The inhabitants of the South Sea Islands prepare it as food, by dividing the fruit into three or four parts, and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness, and somewhat resembles that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem artichoke (217). Of this fruit the Otaheitans make various messes, by putting to it either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut (233), then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it with ripe plantains (270), bananas (271), or a sour paste, made from the bread fruit itself, called mahiÉ. It continues in season eight months of the year; and so great is its utility in the island of Otaheite, that (observes Captain Cook), if, in those parts where it is not spontaneously produced, a man plant but ten trees in his whole life-time, he will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and to future generations, as the natives of our less temperate climate can do by ploughing in the winter's cold, and reaping in the summer's heat, as often as these seasons return; even if, after he has procured bread for his present household, he should convert the surplus into money, and lay it up for his children. Not only does this tree supply food, but clothing, and numerous other conveniences of life. The inner bark, which is white, and composed of a net-like series of fibres, is formed into a kind of cloth. The wood is soft, smooth, and of yellowish colour; and is used for the building of boats and houses. In whatever part the tree is wounded, a glutinous milky juice issues, which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil (233), is employed for making bird-lime, and as a cement for filling up cracks As the climate of the South Sea Islands is considered not much to differ from that of the West Indies, it was (about thirty years ago) thought desirable that some of the trees should be transferred, in a growing state, to our islands there. Consequently, his Majesty's ship the Bounty, in 1787, sailed for this purpose to the South Seas, under the command of Lieutenant, afterwards Admiral Bligh. But a fatal mutiny of the ship's crew prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent design. The commander of the vessel, however, returned in safety to his country; and a second expedition under the same person, and for the same purpose, was fitted out in the year 1791. Captain Bligh arrived in safety at Otaheite, and, after an absence from England of about eighteen months, landed in Jamaica with 352 bread fruit-trees, in a living state, having left many others at different places in his passage thither. From Jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands; but the negroes, having a general and long established predilection for the plantain (270), the bread fruit is not much relished by them. Where, however, it has not been generally introduced as an article of food, it is used as a delicacy; and whether employed as bread, or in the form of pudding, it is considered highly palatable by the European inhabitants. 221. The JACK FRUIT is a species of bread fruit that is grown in Malabar and other parts of the East Indies. The tree which produces this fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) differs from the common bread fruit-tree, in having the leaves entire, each about a span in length, oblong, blunt, serrated at the edges, bright green, and very smooth on the upper surface, paler beneath, and clad with stiff hairs. Few of the fruits even of eastern climates are so large as this. Its weight is sometimes upwards of The season in which the jack fruit is in perfection is about the month of December. Though esteemed by many persons, it is so difficult of digestion, that great caution is requisite in eating it. The unripe fruit is sometimes pickled; it is sometimes cut into slices, and boiled as a vegetable for the table; and sometimes fried in palm-oil. The nuts are eaten roasted, and the wood serves for building materials. TRIANDRIA.222. MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN (Zea mays, Fig. 58), is a species of grain much cultivated in America and other climates: the grains are of yellow colour, somewhat shaped like flattened peas, and grow closely set round the upper part of high perpendicular stalks. To the inhabitants of many countries of warm climates the cultivation of maize is a very important pursuit. These plants are propagated by sowing the seed in rows, in March, April, or May: they generally produce two crops in the year, and yield, according to the soil, from fifteen to forty bushels per acre. As soon as they are ripe, the ears are gathered. They are shortly afterwards threshed, and the grain, when separated, is spread out to dry in the sun; for, if it were heaped together in this state, it would ferment, and sprout or grow. The American Indians parch this kind of corn over a fire, in such manner as not to burn it. Afterwards they pound it, sift the meal and preserve it for their chief food. They make it into puddings and cakes, or bread, the quality of which is extremely nutritive. Maize is useful for poultry and cattle of every kind; and, if converted into malt, a wholesome beverage may be brewed It is supposed that maize might, with advantage, be cultivated in England. 223. The COMMON CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus, Fig. 59.) is an oblong, rough, and cooling fruit, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from some part of the Levant. Cucumbers are always eaten before they are ripe, and usually with vinegar, oil, pepper, and salt. They are sometimes stewed; and when young (under the name of gerkins), are pickled with vinegar and spices, or preserved in syrup as a sweetmeat. As the cucumber plants are too tender to sustain the coldness of our climate exposed to the open air, it is necessary to sow the seed in hot-beds, or under hand-glasses; though, in the beginning of summer, the glasses may, without danger, be removed. The fruit is much improved by putting a piece of slate or a tile under each, instead of allowing it to lie upon the naked ground. 224. The COMMON MELON, or MUSK MELON, is a species of cucumber, produced by a creeping herbaceous plant (Cucumis melo), which has leaves with rounded angles, and grows wild in Tartary. In hot climates this fruit attains great perfection and a peculiarly fine flavour; and even in England, where it is cultivated in hot-beds, and sheltered by glass frames, it is one of the coolest and most delicious summer fruits They are usually eaten with sugar; sometimes with pepper or ginger, and salt; and sometimes alone. In France, they are often eaten as a sauce to boiled beef. The smaller kinds are pickled; and one particular sort of melons are filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and pickled under the name of mangos (73). The propagation of melons is by seed, sown in February or March; and the cultivation is somewhat similar to that of the cucumber, but is attended with considerably more trouble and expense. 225. The PUMPKIN, or POMPION, is a species of gourd which grows to an enormous size, contains several cells, and numerous seeds with tumid margins, and is produced by a creeping plant, with lobed leaves (Cucurbita pepo). The shape of the pumpkin is generally globular, or flatted at top and bottom, and ribbed. The rind is glossy, and of yellow or green colour. The flesh is firm, but melting, and the whole weight is sometimes more than thirty pounds. The Germans cultivate this plant in extensive fields, for various economical purposes, but particularly for the feeding of swine, and other animals. They cut it into pieces, and throw it into fish-ponds, as food for carp. Little trouble is required in its culture; and it will flourish on any tolerable soil, in a warm and sheltered situation. The pulp is served at table in various forms, but particularly in pies, and as an ingredient in puddings and pancakes. The Americans frequently gather pumpkins when half grown, and eat them boiled as a sauce to meat. If the seeds be subjected to pressure, they will yield a proportion of oil so great as nearly to amount to their own weight; and, 226. The BOTTLE GOURD is an American fruit with woody rind, and of very various shape, belonging to the same tribe as the pumpkin, and produced by a creeping plant (Cucurbita lagenaria) with somewhat angular and downy leaves, each having two glands at the base underneath. This fruit is at first green, but when ripe, it assumes a dull yellow colour; and the flesh is spongy and very white. Its size and shape are so varied, that it would be impossible to describe them; sometimes it has a long slender part next the stalk, like the neck of a bottle; sometimes it is swollen, and sometimes of great length, and of form so curved as to be shaped almost like a bugle horn, or the musical instrument called a serpent. So hard and strong is the rind of the bottle-gourd, that this, when freed from the pulp, is frequently converted by the Americans, as well as the inhabitants of the West Indies, into drinking cups, flagons, bottles, and other domestic utensils; but, on being first used, it communicates a disagreeable taste to the juices contained in it. The pulp, boiled with vinegar, is sometimes eaten. 227. The WATER MELON (Cucurbita citrullus) is a roundish or oblong species of gourd, with thin smooth rind, marked with star-like spots, the leaves deeply divided into lobes, and the flowers somewhat resembling those of the cucumber. Persons who have visited hot climates know well how to appreciate the grateful coolness and delicious flavour of the water melon, the flesh of which is so succulent that it melts in the mouth; and the central pulp of which is fluid, like that of the cocoa-nut, and may be sucked, or poured out through a hole in the rind, and thus made to afford a most refreshing beverage. To the inhabitants of Egypt, China, the East Indies, and other countries, where they are cultivated to a great extent, water melons are extremely valuable, Both these varieties may be grown in our gardens, under hot-bed frames, in the same manner as cucumbers. TETRANDRIA.228. The BIRCH (Betula alba) is a forest-tree, easily known by the smooth appearance and silvery colour of its bark, by its leaves being somewhat triangular, but acute, their smallness in comparison with those of other timber trees, and by the small branches being slender and flexible. Although the birch is by no means considered a valuable timber tree, yet its wood is used for numerous purposes. Being of white colour, and firm and tough in texture, it is variously employed by hoop-benders and wheel-wrights. Turners use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other wooden ware. Ox yokes, small screws, women's shoe-heels, pattens, and, in France, wooden shoes are made of it. The North American Indians use the wood of the birch-tree for canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and dishes, curiously joining it together with threads made of roots of the cedar-tree. Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted with hazels, for the purpose of the wood being converted into charcoal for forges. This charcoal is much esteemed; and the soot which is formed on burning the wood constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink. Nearly all the other parts of the birch-tree are applicable to useful purposes. The inhabitants of Sweden employ the bark in the tanning of leather; and, after burning it to a certain degree, they also use it as a cement for broken china and earthen ware. The navigators of In most parts of England the twigs of this tree are made into besoms. They are also made into the tops of fishing rods; and, when smeared with bird-lime (56), are used by bird-catchers. The Norwegians frequently employ them as fodder for their horses. The leaves afford a yellow dye. A wholesome wine is made from the sap or juice of the birch-tree. The juice is obtained by boring holes in the trunks of the trees, about the beginning of March, before the leaves appear. Into each of these holes a piece of elder stick, hollowed through the middle, by clearing out the pith, is placed. This conducts the juice, as it flows from the wound, into a vessel put to receive it. If a tree be large, it may be tapped in four or five places at once; and, from several trees, many gallons of juice may be obtained in a day. The juice thus procured is to be boiled with sugar, in the proportion of four pounds to a gallon, and treated in the same manner as other made wines. A good spirit might no doubt be obtained from the juice of the birch-tree by distillation. 229. The ALDER, or OWLER (Betula alnus, Fig. 63), is a tree which grows in wet situations, and is distinguished by its flower-stalks being branched, and its leaves being roundish, There are few means of better employing swampy and morassy grounds than by planting them with alders; for although the growth of these trees is not rapid, the uses to which they are applicable are such as amply to repay the loss of time requisite before they come to perfection. The wood of the alder, which is in great demand for machinery, is frequently wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, and is peculiarly adapted for all kinds of work which are to be constantly kept in water. It is consequently used for pumps, sluices, pipes, drains, and conduits of different description, and for the foundation of buildings situated in swamps. The water pipes which are laid under the streets of many of our large towns are made of alder; and, for its utility in the formation of sluices, it is much cultivated in Holland. It is commonly used for bobbins; and women's shoe-heels, ploughmen's clogs, and numerous articles of turnery ware, are formed of it. This wood serves also for many domestic and rural uses, for spinning-wheels, troughs, the handles of tools, ladders, cart-wheels; and, as coppice wood, it is planted to be cut down every ninth or tenth year, for poles. The roots and knots furnish a beautifully veined wood, nearly of the colour of mahogany; and well adapted for cabinet work and furniture. The bark may be advantageously used in the operations of tanning and leather-dressing; and by fishermen, for staining their nets. This, and the young twigs, are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades of yellow and red. The Laplanders chew the bark of the alder, and dye their leather garments red with the saliva thus produced. With the addition of copperas, it yields a black dye, which the dyers of cotton use to considerable extent; and, for this purpose, it is purchaseable in some countries, at the rate of seven pence or eight pence per stone. In the highlands of Scotland, we are informed that 230. The COMMON NETTLE. There are two kinds of nettle common in England, one of which (Urtica dioica) has heart-shaped leaves, and the other (Urtica urens) has oval leaves. Although generally considered a noxious weed, the nettle is a plant of extensive utility. By the country people the young and tender leaves and tops are boiled for food, and are eaten as a substitute for greens and other pot-herbs. Asses eagerly devour the leaves of nettles; and if these be boiled, and mixed with other food for poultry, they are said to promote their laying of eggs. A kind of rennet is made in the Highlands of Scotland, by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a liquor produced by the boiling of nettles. A tablespoonful of this is said to be sufficient to coagulate a bowl of milk. From the fibrous stalks of the nettle, dressed in the manner of flax or hemp, cloth and paper may be made. The manufacture of these has been pursued with success in some parts of the Continent; and in our own country a coarse kind of canvass has been produced from them. The roots, when boiled, communicate a yellow colour to woollen cloth, linen, and cotton. It must be remarked that the stings of nettles, when examined by a microscope, are shown to be extremely curious objects. They consist of a slender, tapering, sharp, and hollow substance, with a minute hole at the point, and a bag at the base. When the sting is pressed, it perforates the skin, and the same pressure forces up from the bag, into the wound, a corrosive liquor, which In consequence of their stinging quality, nettles have been employed, with advantage, in restoring sensation to paralytic limbs, by whipping them with these plants. They were formerly much used as a styptic; and are said to have been found useful in jaundice, scurvy, gout, and other complaints; but most of the accounts that have been given of their great medicinal virtues have now little credit. The flowers and seeds are said to have been tried in Italy, and found an efficacious substitute for Peruvian bark (62) in agues and other complaints. A leaf of the nettle put upon the tongue, and then pressed against the roof of the mouth, is stated to be a remedy for bleeding at the nose. 231. The MULBERRY-TREE (Morus nigra, Fig. 72) is a native of Italy, and is known by its heart-shaped and rough leaves, and its large juicy berries, each consisting of several smaller ones. The flowers of the mulberry appear in June, and the fruit becomes ripe in September, the berries continuing to ripen in succession for about two months. These, if eaten before they are ripe, are astringent; but, when ripe, are pleasantly acid, though of very peculiar flavour. An agreeable syrup, made from the juice of the ripe fruit, is kept in apothecaries' shops for medicinal uses. The juice itself is employed to impart a dark tinge to liquors and confections; and, when properly fermented, it becomes a pleasant wine. In cider counties it is not unusual to mix mulberries with the apples destined for cider, by which is made a delicious beverage called mulberry cider. Mulberries stain the fingers, as well as linen, cotton, or woollen, of a red colour, which is difficult to be extracted; but which may be removed by verjuice, or the acid of lemons. In Italy, and other countries where silkworms are 232. The BOX-TREE (Buxus sempervirens) is a shrubby evergreen tree, twelve or fifteen feet high, which has small, oval, and opposite leaves, and grows wild in several parts of Britain. It has been remarked that this tree was formerly so common in some parts of England, as to have given name to several places, particularly to Box-hill in Surrey, and Boxley in Kent; and, in 1815, there were cut down at Box-hill as many of these trees as were sold for upwards of 10,000l., a circumstance perhaps unparalleled in their history. The box-tree was much admired by the ancient Romans, and also by our own ancestors, on account of its being easily clipped into the form of animals, and other fantastic shapes. In the South of Europe it is cultivated in gardens, and kept in flower-pots, with as much attention as we bestow upon myrtles. The wood is of yellowish colour, close-grained, very hard and heavy, and admits of a beautiful polish. On these accounts it is much used by turners, by engravers on wood, carvers, and mathematical instrument makers. Flutes and other wind instruments are formed of it; and furniture made of box-wood would be valuable were it not too heavy, as it would not only be very beautiful, but its bitter quality would secure it from An oil distilled from the shavings of box-wood has been found to relieve the tooth-ache, and to be useful in other complaints; and the powdered leaves destroy worms. HEXANDRIA.233. The COCOA-NUT is a woody fruit, produced in nearly all the countries of hot climates; of oval shape, from three or four, to six or eight inches in length, covered with a fibrous husk, and lined internally with a white, firm, and fleshy kernel. The tree (Cocos nucifera) which produces the cocoa-nut is a kind of palm, from forty to sixty feet high. It has, on its summit only, a kind of leaves, which appear almost like immense feathers, each fourteen or fifteen feet long, three feet broad, and winged. Of these the upper ones are erect, the middle ones horizontal, and the lower ones drooping. The trunk is straight, naked, and marked with the scars of the fallen leaves. The nuts hang down from the summit of the tree, in clusters of a dozen or more together. The external rind of the cocoa-nut has a smooth surface, and is of somewhat triangular shape. This encloses an extremely fibrous substance of considerable thickness, which immediately surrounds the nut. The latter has a thick and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each closed by a black membrane. The kernel lines the shell; and is sometimes nearly an inch in thickness, and encloses a considerable quantity of watery liquid, of whitish colour, which has the name of milk. Food, clothing, and the means of shelter and protection, are all afforded by the cocoa-nut-tree. The kernels of the nuts, which somewhat resemble the filbert in taste, but are of much firmer consistence, are Cocoa-nut-trees flourish best in a sandy soil, and first produce fruit when six or seven years old; after which each tree yields from fifty to a hundred nuts annually. The fibrous coats or husks which envelope the cocoa-nuts, after they have been soaked for some time in water, become soft. They are then beaten, to free them from the other substances with which they are intermixed, and which fall away like saw-dust, the stringy part only being left. This is spun into long yarns, woven into sail-cloth, and twisted into ropes and cables, even for large vessels. The cordage thus manufactured is valuable in several respects, but particularly for the advantages that are derived from its floating in water. The woody shells of the nut are so hard as to be capable of receiving a high polish; and they are formed into drinking cups, and other domestic utensils, which are sometimes expensively mounted in silver. On the summit of the cocoa-nut-tree the tender leaves, at their first springing up, are folded over each other, so as somewhat to resemble a cabbage. These are occasionally eaten in place of culinary greens, and are a very delicious food; but, as they can only be The trunks are made into boats, and sometimes constitute timber for the construction of houses; and, when their central pith is cleared away, they form excellent gutters for the conveyance of water. If, whilst growing, the body of the tree be bored, a white and sweetish liquor exudes from the wound, which has the name of toddy. This is collected in vessels of earthen-ware, and is a favourite beverage in many countries where the trees grow. When fresh it is very sweet; in a few hours it becomes somewhat acid, and, in this state, is peculiarly agreeable; but in the space of twenty-four hours it is complete vinegar. By distillation this liquor yields an ardent spirit, which is sometimes called rack, or arrack; and is more esteemed than that obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, and merely fermented and flavoured with the cocoa-nut juice. If boiled with quick-lime, it thickens into a syrup, which is used by confectioners in the East Indies, though it is much inferior to syrup produced from the sugarcane. POLYANDRIA.234. The COMMON ARUM, CUCKOO PINT, or LORDS AND LADIES (Arum maculatum), is a well-known plant, which grows in shady hedge bottoms; and has, about the month of May, a club-shaped spike, frequently of purple colour at the top, issuing from a green sheath with which it is enveloped. The acridity of every part of this common plant, whilst in a recent state, is such that, if tasted, there is left upon the tongue an intolerably disagreeable burning and pricking sensation, which continues for a long It was from this property that the roots, which are whitish, and each about the size of a nutmeg, were formerly used internally in medicine, as a powerful stimulant, and externally for blisters. In some parts of France they are employed in bleaching, from an opinion that, by their corrosive quality, they render the linen white. Their acrimony is wholly dissipated by drying; and, in a dried state, they afford an almost tasteless farinaceous powder, which may even be made into bread. The powdered roots of the common arum are converted, by the French, into an harmless cosmetic, which is sold at a high price under the name of Cyprus powder. In consequence of a premium which was offered by the Society for Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for discovering a method of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man, an experiment was made, by Mrs. Jane Gibbs, of Portland, in Dorsetshire, upon the roots of the common arum. A peck of the roots was found to produce about four pounds' weight of starch; and she prepared, in the whole, about two hundred weight. The process was to clean the roots, and pound them in a mortar with water: the pulp thus formed was strained, and after being allowed to settle, the water was poured off, and the starch remained at the bottom. Whilst speaking of the arum, it may be stated that the flowers of some of the foreign species (Arum crinitum and A. dracunculus) have so strong a smell, like carrion, that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their eggs in them: and that the structure of the flowers is such that, when the insects attempt to retreat, they are prevented by the reversed hairs which are there found, and are destroyed. Some of the species are considered wholesome food; one (Arum 235. The SWEET CHESNUT (Fagus castanea, Fig. 65) is a stately tree, which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of England, and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with tapering serratures at the edge. The flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters, about the month of May; and the fruit, which is ripe in September, is enveloped in a husk defended by a great number of complicated prickles. Notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the celebrated chesnut-tree, at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, which was known as a boundary mark in the reign of King John. This tree is supposed to have then been more than 500 years old, making its age at this time to exceed 1100 years. The diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet, and it still continues to bear fruit. Few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut. It is true that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form; but in the landscapes of Salvator Rosa, and other celebrated masters, chesnut-trees are very conspicuous. The timber of this tree was formerly much in use. The beams and rafters of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it; and its appearance so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good judge to distinguish them from each other. For the heads and staves of casks, the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and pipes, made of it for the conveyance of water under ground, are said to be more durable than those either of elm or oak. For furniture it may be stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. Hop-poles, and poles for espaliers Much of the fruit of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer classes of people on the Continent, but particularly by those of Spain and Italy; and, when dried and powdered, it is no mean substitute for flour, in bread and puddings. Chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable quantities, both from France and Spain, and are roasted and eaten in desserts: those which are grown here being much smaller than what we receive from abroad. On the Continent they are sometimes used for making starch, and in the bleaching of linen. 236. The BEECH (Fagus sylvatica, Fig. 64) is a forest tree known by its waved and somewhat oval leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a husk which is covered with simple prickles. There are beech woods in many parts of England, but the trees flourish best in rich, calcareous soils. These woods, it has been observed, are peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in; and, under their shade, afford to the botanist many interesting plants, such as the bird's nest (monotropa), winter green (pyrola), and some rare orchideÆ. Beech-trees bear lopping well, and may be trained so as to form lofty hedges, which are the more valuable for shelter, as the leaves, though faded, remain through the winter, and the twisted branches may be formed into a very strong fence. The wood is hard and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is liable soon to decay. It is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners. Carpenters' planes, tool-handles, and mallets, are made of it. When split into thin layers, it is used to make scabbards for swords. Chairs, bedsteads, and other furniture, are occasionally formed of beech. The fruit of this tree, which has the name of beech-mast, and is ripe in September, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it occasions In some countries the leaves of the beech-tree are collected in the autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be preferable to those either of straw or chaff. 237. The OAK (Quercus robur, Fig. 68) is a well-known timber tree, of native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern temperate climates. It is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence; and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be supported. Oak timber being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very liable to splinter, is, in Europe, preferred to every other kind for the construction of ships of war. It is also well adapted to every purpose of rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes of wheels. Until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the walls of rooms with wainscot, or panelling of oak. This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great longevity, and the dimensions to which it Before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that they may become perfectly dry. The bark thus obtained is extensively used in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. The astringent properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. The saw-dust of this tree, and even the leaves, though much inferior to the bark, have been found useful in tanning. The former of these is the principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing of fustian. On the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and a habitation for their future young. These are termed galls, and if, when arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol, they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes. Acorns, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some time, in cold water, or by boiling them. After this simple process, they are not an unpalatable fruit. With the ancient Britons they were an article in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and The branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees, are burned for the formation of charcoal; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be made, are nearly the same. One of the most remarkable of these is, that it is not liable to decay by age. Hence it was customary, with the ancients, to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be driven into the ground, or placed in water. Charcoal may be preserved without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are at this day frequently discovered. Besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed, with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and several manufactories of this oil have been established in the neighbourhood of London. Newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint. This substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes. When purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. The mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. This heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of the charcoal. 238. CORK is the external bark of a species of oak (Quercus suber) which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved. The principal supply of the cork that is consumed in Europe, is obtained from Catalonia in Spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to the inhabitants of that province near 250,000l. per annum. In the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the other near the bottom of the trunk. For the purpose of stripping off the bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. Sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand. After the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external surface. By the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. The pieces are next loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked, or packed in bales for exportation. Many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. Its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered by shipwreck. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and other places. In some parts of Spain it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians sometimes made coffins of it. On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of shoes to keep out moisture. When burned, it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of Spanish black. In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin, and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. The corks for bottles are cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across. Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork are sold to the makers of Spanish black. 239. The WALNUT is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree (Juglans regia, Fig. 69), which grows wild in the northern parts of China and Persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk. Although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in England is by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its wood was considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. It is pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite wood. On the Continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for furniture of various kinds. The fruit of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. In an unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made into a pickle, and also into ketchup. In medicine the unripe fruit is considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered in the form of an extract. Walnuts become ripe about the beginning of October; and, as they grow in clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat them down with long poles. The kernel, which is covered with a tough, yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut or filbert. It yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel. There are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the cultivators of that tree. 240. The HICKORY-NUT (Juglans alba) is a North American species of walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that. Its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of oil. 241. The HAZEL-NUT and FILBERT are well-known fruits, the former of a shrub (Corylus avellana, Fig. 67) which grows in hedges and thickets; and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in orchards and kitchen gardens. Each of these kinds of nuts is much esteemed, but particularly the latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under the name of nut-oil, is often used by painters. Chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with and retains odours. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs. If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter. In many parts of the country hazels are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. Being extremely tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles, crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters and engravers to draw their outlines. In countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast during its fermentation. They are then hung up to dry; and, at the next brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. 242. The HORNBEAM (Carpinus betulus, Fig. 73) is a forest tree which grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed, and serrated. As a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the Continent than in this country. It grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of hills; and is easily transplanted. The wood, which is white, hard, and tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. As fuel it is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds of wood. The inner bark is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow. From the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old French garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in England than it is at present. It preserves a great portion of its withered leaves through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an excellent fence. The German husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam, throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's cross. In that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and bends them closely together with straw. In consequence of this operation the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living palisado or chevaux de frise; so that such a protection may be called a rural 243. The PLANE-TREE (Platanus orientalis, Fig. 71) is distinguished by having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these subdivided into smaller ones. By the ancient Greeks and Romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its branches. Wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping, throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks of plane trees for refreshment and shade. Though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore (122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. The plane, though a native of Asia and the southern parts of Europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect. Its wood, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables. 244. The CABBAGE-TREE (Areca oleracea) is an American species of palm, which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. The leaves, sometimes near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire. Such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated the queen of woods. Its fruit, which grows in bunches from the top, is an oblong and We are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into Jamaica by Admiral Knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been cultivated there with great attention. But it is chiefly planted for its beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be. In the leaves of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. The sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when dried, may be converted into paper. The trunks, when cleared of the pith, serve as water pipes and gutters. Of the pith a kind of sago is made; and in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the West Indian islands eat as a great delicacy. 245. The CATECHU, ARECA, or BETEL-NUT-TREE (Areca catechu), is a species of palm which grows in the East Indies. It is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or eight inches in diameter. The leaves, which grow on the summit, are winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a rounded conical form. The kernel of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as the nut ripens. This fruit is in general use by the Indians, who cut it into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel (22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our country chew tobacco. The consumption of these nuts in India is almost beyond calculation. They are an article of considerable trade, from port to port; and also from India to China, but they are seldom brought into England, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures. The drug called catechu, and formerly terra japonica, was supposed to be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be made from the wood of a species of mimosa. MONADELPHIA.246. The SCOTS FIR (Pinus sylvestris), which has its name from growing wild in different parts of Scotland, is known from other trees of the same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in pairs; its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped, mostly in pairs, as long as the leaves, and the scales blunt. This useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and north-east sides of hills, in a poor and sandy soil, especially where this is mixed with loam. If planted among rocks, or in bogs, it seldom attains a large size; in black soil it becomes diseased; and in chalky land it frequently pines away and dies. Its timber, under the name of deal, is employed as the wood-work of houses; for rafters, flooring, doors, the frames of windows, tables, boxes, and other purposes, infinitely too various to be enumerated. Frigates, and other ships of large size, have sometimes been constructed of deal but these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak. Much of the deal which The outer bark of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather; and it is said that, in the northern parts of Europe, the soft, white, and fibrous inner bark is, in times of scarcity, made into a kind of bread. For this purpose it is dried over a fire, reduced to powder, kneaded with water, and a small portion of corn-flour, into cakes, and baked in an oven. Children in Norway are very fond of the fresh bark, in the spring of the year, either shaved off with a knife, or grated with a rasp. Common Turpentine is the resinous juice chiefly of the Scots fir, obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early in spring, and placing vessels beneath for its reception. It is of brown colour; and has a strong odour, and disagreeable taste. In the distillation of turpentine an essential oil is produced, called oil of turpentine, which is extremely pungent. When the distillation is continued to dryness, the substance which remains is known by the name of common resin or rosin; but, if water be mixed with it, while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, a substance is formed called yellow resin. Common turpentine is mostly employed as an ingredient in the plasters used by farriers. The oil is occasionally used in medicine; and, lately, it has been considered efficacious in cases of worms. It is much employed by painters for rendering their colours more fluid; as well as in the composition of different kinds of varnish used in floor-cloth, umbrella, and other manufactures. The noxious spirit called gin was formerly flavoured with juniper berries; but as these are now Tar is obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir-tree, by cutting them into billets, piling these, in a proper manner, in pits or ovens formed for the purpose, covering them partly over, and setting them on fire. During the burning, a black and thick matter, which is the tar, falls to the bottom, and is conducted thence into vessels which are placed to receive it, and from which it is afterwards poured into barrels for sale. Tar is an article of great utility in manufactures, and for various economical purposes. It is much employed for smearing the rigging, and other external parts of ships, to prevent their receiving injury from moisture. It has been used in medicine both internally and externally; and particularly tar-water, or water impregnated with tar, was, some years ago, a popular remedy in various disorders, but its virtues have been too much extolled. Although considerable quantities of tar are prepared in this country, these are insufficient to supply the demand; consequently we, every year, import great quantities of it from Russia, Sweden, America, and other countries. Pitch is usually made by melting together coarse hard resin and an equal quantity of tar; or, as some writers state, by boiling tar with a certain portion of water, until it becomes so thick that, on cooling, it forms a hard black mass. By the ancients pitch was much employed for giving flavour and fragrance to their wines. With us it is of Lamp-black is a soot formed by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar in furnaces constructed for that purpose. The smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes, each covered with linen, in the form of a cone. Upon this linen the soot is deposited: and it is, from time to time, beaten off into the boxes, and afterwards packed in barrels for sale. This substance is employed in printing and dyeing; and has its name from the practice that was formerly adopted of making it by means of lamps. 247. The WEYMOUTH PINE is chiefly distinguished by its leaves growing in fives, and its cones being smooth, cylindrical, and longer than the leaves. This species of fir-tree grows wild in North America, and succeeds well in strong land in England. Its timber is white, of more open grain than Scots fir, and not so heavy as that. In America it is principally used for the masts of ships, for which, by its toughness, it is peculiarly calculated. 248. The SPRUCE FIR (Pinus abies), a native of Norway, and other Northern parts of Europe, is known by its short, and four-sided leaves growing singly, and surrounding the branches; its cones being cylindrical, the scales somewhat square, flattened, and notched at the top The wood of the spruce fir is what the English carpenters usually denominate white deal. It is considered next in value to that obtained from the Scots fir; and From incisions made into the trunk of the spruce fir-tree, a fine and clear turpentine oozes, which, after being boiled in water, and strained through a linen cloth, acquires a somewhat solid consistence, and reddish brown colour; and is called Burgundy pitch. This is employed as an ingredient in several kinds of ointments and plasters: and is principally manufactured in Saxony. The article called essence of spruce, which is used in making spruce beer, is prepared from the branches of this tree, and from those of a species nearly allied to it which grows in America. 249. The LARCH (Pinus laryx), a native of the Alps, and the mountains of Germany, is a species of fir, which has its leaves in tufts, and its cones oblong, and of somewhat oval shape, the margins of the scales bent back, and jagged. The cultivation of larch-trees has of late been much recommended for adoption in this country, on account of the value of their timber, which for strength and durability, is equal to most kinds of deal. It is well calculated for masts, and the framework of vessels, being capable of sustaining much greater pressure even than oak. For wood-work constantly immersed in water, it is peculiarly calculated, as, in such situations, it is asserted to become almost as hard as stone. In Petersburg larch timber is applied to no other use than that of ship-building. Line-of-battle ships are constructed of it in Archangel, and these generally last about fifteen years; though, in milder climates, it is imagined that they would last much longer. For gates, pales, and similar work, exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, they are admirably serviceable; and for flooring and other internal purposes are at least equally durable. Buildings constructed of larch timber are said to have continued sound for 200 years; and, in From the inner bark of the larch the Russians manufacture a soft and fine kind of white gloves. The trunk, if tapped betwixt the months of March and September, yields an extremely pure turpentine, which has the name of Venice turpentine; and is of considerable use in medicine. It is usually thinner than any other kind of turpentine, and of clear, whitish, or yellowish colour. The drug of this name, which is generally met with in the shops, is now imported from New England, but was formerly brought from Venice. A brown gummy substance, known in Russia by the name of Orenburgh gum, is obtained by a curious process from the sap of the tree. On the large branches of the larch are produced small, sweetish grains, somewhat resembling sugar; which are frequently substituted for the drug called manna (275). The cultivation of the larch was first introduced into Britain towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century. The trees will grow in almost any soil; and the proper season for felling them is the month of July. They, however, seldom attain any large size in this country; and they are said to decay and become covered with moss, when about forty years old. 250. The CYPRESS-TREE (Cupressus sempervirens) is a dark-coloured evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely small, and entirely cover all the slender branches, lying close upon them so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape. In some of the trees the branches diminish gradually in length In many of the old gardens in this country cypress-trees are still to be found, but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. They are, however, very valuable on account of their wood, which is hard, compact, and durable, of pale or reddish colour, with deep veins, and pleasant smell. We are informed by Pliny that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of cypress wood, and that, although they were 400 years old at the time when he wrote, they appeared to be nearly as fresh as new. Indeed this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter in the capitol was made of it. The gates of St. Peter's church at Rome are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the Emperor Constantine until that of Pope Eugenius the Fourth, when gates of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addition to its other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to suffer from the attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature. The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated by the ancients to Pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was customary to place branches of the cypress-tree before the houses in which persons lay dead. 251. The CASSAVA, or CASSADA (Jatropha manihot) is a South American shrub, about three feet in height, with broad, shining, and somewhat hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers. It is a very remarkable circumstance, that the roots of the cassava, if eaten raw, are a fatal poison both to man and beast, and that, when prepared by heat, they yield a safe and valuable food; on which, indeed, many both of the Indian and European inhabitants of South America almost wholly subsist. The roots are the only edible parts of the plant. These, which are white, soft, and farinaceous, from one to two feet in length, and five or six inches in circumference, are dug out of the earth, at a certain season of the year, washed, stripped of their rind, and ground to a pulp. The juice, or poisonous part, is pressed out, and carefully thrown away; as cattle, and other animals, which have accidentally drunk of it, have almost instantly died. The flour that remains, after pressure, is formed into thin round cakes and baked. To an European, accustomed to other bread, these, though sweetish, and not unpalatable, have an insipid taste. If placed in close vessels, and preserved from the attacks of insects, cassava bread may be kept for several months without injury. With the natives of South America, it is not unusual to throw a great number of cakes of cassava together to heat, after which they soak them in water, which causes a rapid fermentation to take place; and from the liquor thus obtained, they make a very sharp and disagreeable, but intoxicating beverage, which will not keep longer than twenty-four hours without spoiling. From the pure flour of cassava is formed the substance called tapioca, which is frequently imported into this country, and is used for jelly, puddings, and other culinary purposes. It is prepared from the fibrous part of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp, after the juice is extracted, and working it in the hand till a thick white cream appears on the surface. This, being separated, and washed in water, gradually subsides to the bottom. After the water is poured off, the remaining moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, the substance being constantly stirred, until at length it is formed into grains about the size of sago (266). The roots of another species of this shrub, called sweet cassava, are usually eaten with butter, and merely after being roasted in hot ashes. They have much the flavour of chesnuts, and are an agreeable and nutritive food. 252. The TALLOW TREE (Croton sebiferum) is a native of China, and in habit somewhat resembles a cherry-tree, but has shining egg-shaped, and pointed leaves, that form tufts at the extremity of the branches. The fruit of this tree, from which the Chinese obtain a kind of tallow for the manufacture of candles, is enclosed in a husk, not much unlike that of the chesnut, and consists of three round white kernels. All the preparation that is requisite is to melt these kernels, adding a little oil, to render them softer and more pliant than they would otherwise be. The candles made from this substance are very white, but are sometimes coloured by adding a little vermilion. They are more firm than those of tallow, but not equal in quality to candles either of wax or spermaceti. The wicks that are used are not, like ours, made of cotton, but consist of little rods of light, dry wood, with the pith of a rush entwined round them. 253. INDIAN RUBBER, or CAOUTCHOUC, is the dried juice of a large and much branched tree (Siphonia elastica, Fig. 60), which grows in Guiana, and other parts of South America. This tree has somewhat oval leaves, entire, veined, and smooth, arranged in threes, and on long foot-stalks. The flowers are small, in bunches, near the ends of the branches, and the fruit is triangular. It was not until about the year 1736, that this very extraordinary natural production was made known in Europe. It is obtained by making incisions through the bark of the tree, chiefly in wet weather. From the wounds thus formed the juice flows abundantly. It is Indian rubber is remarkable for the flexibility and elasticity which it acquires on attaining a solid state; and also for the numerous useful purposes to which it is capable of being applied. By the Indians it is sometimes formed into boots, which are impenetrable by water, and which, when smoked, have the appearance of leather. Bottles are made of it, to whose necks are fastened hollow reeds, through which the liquor contained in them can be squirted at pleasure. One of these, filled with water, is always presented to each of the guests at their entertainments. Flambeaux are likewise formed of this substance, which give a very brilliant light; and it is said that a torch of Indian rubber, an inch and a half in diameter, and two feet long, will burn twelve hours. The inhabitants of Quito prepare a species of oil-cloth with the hardened juice of this tree. The principal uses to which Indian rubber is applied by us are, for the effacing of black-lead marks; for flexible syringes, tubes, and other instruments used by surgeons and chemists; and for the formation, by means of turpentine or linseed oil, of a varnish for air-balloons. Various experiments have been made to dissolve this substance, so that it may assume its naturally elastic state, under any figure that may be required. This has It has been proved that cloth of all kinds may be made impenetrable by water, if impregnated with the fresh juice of the Indian rubber tree; and that boots, gloves, and other articles, made of cloth thus prepared, may be joined without sewing, and only by moistening the edges with the juice. These are not only more durable, but retain their shape better than such as are made of the juice without any connecting substance. It has lately been ascertained that, in Prince of Wales's Island, and also in Sumatra, there are trees of a class and order totally different from that above described, which yield a juice similar to this, and applicable to all the same purposes. 254. The CASTOR-OIL PLANT (Ricinus palma christi) is a native both of the East and West Indies, and has a stem from five to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, and large bluish-green leaves, divided into seven lobes, serrated and pointed, the footstalks long, and inserted into the disk. The flowers are produced in a terminating spike, and the seed-vessels are covered with spines, and contain each three flattish oblong seeds. It is to the seeds of this plant that we are indebted for the drug called castor-oil. This is sometimes obtained by pressing the seeds, in the same way as is practised with respect to oil of almonds (152). But the mode chiefly adopted in the West Indies, whence we principally import it, is first to strip the seeds of their husks or pods, and then to bruise them in a mortar; The uses of castor-oil in medicine are well known. The plant is sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen its seeds in the open ground of gardens, in the south of England. |
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