  57. ALKANET is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough plant (Anchusa tinctoria), with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are shorter than the corolla. Though this plant is sometimes cultivated in England, by far the greater portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the Levant, or from the neighbourhood of Montpelier in France. Alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. Its chief use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar articles. It is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving colour to mahogany furniture. Wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the stone. 58. The COWSLIP is a plant (Primula veris) which grows in most meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description. The flowers of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as a balsamic tea. When boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar, and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly pleasant wine. The roots have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms. 59. BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (Menyanthes trifoliata), is a common plant in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes, and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface. There is no British plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. The leaves are intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the Highlands of Scotland as a tea, to strengthen the stomach. The inhabitants of some parts of Sweden employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. By some persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and different preparations of this plant have been found 60. SCAMMONY is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe (Convolvulus scammonia, Fig. 7,) which is cultivated in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Persia. This plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three large and somewhat purplish white flowers. The roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is frequently used in medicine. To obtain it, the earth, at a certain season of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. The juice flows from the wound into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to receive it. But, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. Still, however, the quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. In this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the leaves and stalks. The best scammony is imported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. It is sometimes adulterated with flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth. In its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an efficacious, though violent purgative. But if triturated or ground down with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild and safe. 61. JALAP is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in transverse slices, from South America. The plant that produces it (Convolvulus jalapa, Fig. 8) belongs to the convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish within. The name of jalap is derived from Xalapa, a town in South America, situated betwixt Vera Cruz and Mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great quantities, into Europe. The jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical garden at Charlestown, and in several other parts of America. When recent, the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular marks. Both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. It is frequently mixed with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture. The only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. It has been advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly with children. 62. PERUVIAN BARK is the produce of a tree which grows in South America, and chiefly in Peru, whence its name has been derived. This tree (Cinchona officinalis), in size and general appearance, somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. Its leaves are in pairs, oval, pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside (Fig. 10.) Formerly this valuable medicine had the name of Jesuit's bark, from its having been first introduced into Europe by some persons of the religious order called The tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of Quito and Peru. The proper time for cutting it is from September to November, the only season during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. The Indians, as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing the bark, to preserve it from wet. They then go forth, each furnished with a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of bark. Each tree occupies two men. They first cut or slice down the bark as far from the ground as they can reach. They then tie to the tree several sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step. In this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below collects what his companion cuts. To relieve each other, they ascend the different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags once in the course of the day. When they return to their huts, they spread out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet, which would greatly injure it. There are three sorts of bark in use: the pale, the red, and the yellow. Of these the two last have recently been discovered. The red is now very scarce, and is seldom brought into Europe. The pale bark is We are informed, by some writers, that the Peruvians first learned the use of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent fevers, instinctively led to it. Others say that one of the inhabitants of Peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. On its first introduction into Europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. Its character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess. Peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of gangrene. It is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. In taste it is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than otherwise. 63. COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot climates, and is chiefly imported from Arabia and the East and West Indies. This shrub (Coffea Arabica, Fig. 9) is from fifteen to twenty feet in height. The leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad, smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented. The berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. Each of these contains two cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it before it undergoes the process of roasting. Coffee is an article of only late introduction. To the Greeks and Romans it was wholly unknown. Its use appears to have originated in Ethiopia; and, in 1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into Constantinople, whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of Europe. In 1652 Mr. Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought with him to England a Greek servant, whose name was Pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting coffee, and making it into a beverage. This man was the first who publicly sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in George Yard, Lombard Street. At Paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of the Turkish ambassador, Solomon Aga, in 1669; about three years after which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city. The coffee shrub was originally planted in Jamaica in 1732. Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. The trees are raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. Care is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. As soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit should be rendered too succulent. In places much exposed to the south, the trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. When the fruit has attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these, the labourers shake it down. They afterwards spread the berries on mats, and expose them to the sun to dry. The husk is then broken off by large and heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has been thus cleared of its husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan, for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is intermingled. A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one The best coffee is imported from Mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the Red Sea. This, which in Europe is called Mocha and Turkey coffee, bears a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. It is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and, when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. The coffee next in esteem to this is grown in Java and the East Indies, and that of lowest price in the West Indies. When stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such as is imported from our own plantations. The quantity of coffee annually supplied by Arabia is supposed to be upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. Before the commencement of the French Revolution the island of St. Domingo alone exported more than seventy millions of pounds per annum. Almost all the Mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and without sugar. The excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. If it be too little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid, and has a disagreeable burnt taste. In England the operation of roasting is usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes, and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is turned by a jack. In a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion, promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition to drowsiness. It has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases of severe head-ach. The outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner 64. STRAMONIUM, or THORN-APPLE (Datura stramonium), is an annual plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed vessels large and beset with spines. Although originally a native of America, stramonium is now a frequent weed on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. Its smell is exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. The seeds are particularly injurious. Notwithstanding this, the inspissated or dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in epileptic and other convulsive disorders. An ointment prepared from them affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints. The soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in eastern countries, and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for very improper uses. 65. TOBACCO, in the state that we see it, is a narcotic drug formed from the dried leaves of an annual plant (Nicotiana tabacum, Fig. 11) that is principally cultivated in North America, The stalk of the tobacco plant is erect, strong, round, and hardy. The leaves are large, oblong, pointed, clammy, and of pale green colour. The flowers, which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters, are of reddish colour, and funnel shaped, with a long hairy tube; and the seed vessel is oval, and divided into two cells, that contain many rounded seeds. The cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts of North America. The seed, mixed with ashes on account of its smallness, is sown The name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been originally brought into Europe from Tobago, or Tabago, an island in the Bay of Panama, near the coast of America. To the American Indians the use of tobacco has been known for many centuries; and the practice of smoking it is common to almost all the tribes. Tobacco forms a part of every entertainment; and, in the intervals of hunting, sleeping, and eating, it occupies no small portion of their time. In many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used; and instances have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has ensued. The custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into England, by Sir Walter Raleigh, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and a ludicrous story has often been told respecting it: that Sir Walter having directed a servant to bring him a jug of water, the man, at his return into the room, found him So extensive has this nauseous practice now become, especially in Holland and Germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy classes of the inhabitants. To many constitutions it is very injurious. When first begun, it occasions vomiting, intoxication, and other unpleasant effects. These however, by repetition, are discontinued, though its stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome. Another form under which tobacco is used, is that of snuff. The basis of snuff is tobacco powdered; but many other matters are added, to give it a peculiar smell, or to impart pungency to it. When first applied to the nose, snuff excites sneezing, but, by repetition, this entirely ceases. The practice of taking snuff has, in some instances, been found injurious to the smell and the voice; it has been attended with loss of memory, and by symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system. But there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting, to persons unaccustomed to it, as chewing. By the labouring classes, and particularly by mariners, this practice is chiefly followed, from a notion, though apparently a very erroneous one, that it will prevent the return of hunger, and, in some degree, supply a lack of food. Though all these are disgusting as practices, there is no doubt, but, medicinally, they may be attended with good effects. By smoking and chewing, tooth-ach has often been relieved; and some persons consider the former a means of guarding against contagion. The occasional and moderate use of snuff has, in several cases, been found beneficial, particularly in head-achs, and in diseases of the eyes and ears. Infusions of tobacco are sometimes administered in medicine, but this drug is principally given in the form of a vinous or watery infusion. The tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an European climate, and is cultivated in several parts of Spain and Portugal. As however, on importation, it pays a heavy tax to government, the culture of it in this country is restricted, by the legislature, to half a rod of ground in physic gardens; and if this be exceeded the cultivator is liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod. The different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown, and to the different modes of management and manufacture, than to any essential distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured. 66. DEADLY NIGHTSHADE (Atropa belladonna) is an extremely poisonous plant, which grows in hedges and waste grounds, in several parts of England, and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour, purple bell-shaped flowers, and shining black berries, each about the size of a small cherry. There is no British plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as this; and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the berries have, in many instances, particularly with children, been succeeded by the most fatal consequences. It is true that some persons have been known to eat three or four of them without injury; but in others a single berry, and even the half of one, has occasioned death. The leaves are more powerful than the berries. The usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly stupor, giddiness, delirium, great thirst, retching, and convulsions. A draught of vinegar, and keeping the patient constantly in motion, are said to be the best means of cure. Some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced those strange and dreadful effects that are described by Plutarch to have been experienced by the Roman soldiers, under the command of Antony, during their retreat from the Parthians:—"Their distress for provisions was so great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them. Among others, they found an herb of which many ate; these, shortly afterwards, lost their memory and their senses, and wholly employed themselves in turning over all the stones they could find; then, being seized with vomiting, they fell down dead." The leaves of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally, and with good effect, in cases of cancer; and in ulcers and tumours of different kinds. They are likewise given, internally, in infusion; but the sufferings of the patient, however small the dose may be, are so dreadful that few practitioners like to resort to them. 67. POTATOE (Solanum tuberosum) is a well known edible root, which was originally imported into this country from America. No root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate climates, as the potatoe. In some countries, particularly in Ireland, it forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants. By the English peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it deserves. In addition to its value for culinary uses, it might, in a very essential degree, be made to serve as a substitute for bread. If duly prepared, and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour, it may even be made into loaves. A kind of cheese may be made, by reducing potatoes to the consistence of paste, adding an equal quantity of the curd from which cheese is made, with a little salt and some other ingredients, mixing the whole together, and forming them in moulds. The Germans prepare a favourite dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring These roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle; and it is said that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or turnips. Potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs; but, for a little while before these are killed, it is requisite to use barley meal in addition, as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away in the cooking. In the use of potatoes as food, it is requisite to prepare them in some manner by heat, as otherwise they are both unpalatable and poisonous. A kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes; but this has been forbidden by the legislature. Starch may be made from potatoes, by the simple process of scraping them in water, and well washing the pulp: the starch settles to the bottom of the vessel, in a heavy and closely connected sediment. This starch is of use for the same purposes as starch prepared from wheat: it is also valuable as a size; which, unlike the size produced from animal substances, does not easily putrefy, and has no disagreeable smell. Bakers in Germany, by the addition of calcined oyster shells and burnt hartshorn, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast. The stalks or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper. They are also of considerable utility as manure. The apples, or seed-vessels, may be usefully employed as a pickle: and, if properly prepared, they are said to be even more palatable than cucumbers. There are numerous varieties of the potatoe. Of these the most remarkable are the different kinds of kidney potatoes, the Aylesbury white, and Altringham early white, which are chiefly grown for the table; the ox noble, Irish purple, and red potatoes, which are adapted for fodder. This valuable root was originally imported from America, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants of Ireland assert that it was first The usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces, reserving one eye or bud to each division, and setting these in the earth. They will succeed in any tolerable soil; but they flourish most luxuriantly in light sandy loams. The proper time for digging them up is during dry weather in autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. When cultivated on a small scale, they are usually dug with a three pronged fork; but when raised in fields, where this process would be too tedious, they are turned up by a plough. 68. CAPSICUMS are South American and Indian plants easily known by their hollow pods, of shining red or yellow colour, which contain many small, flat, and kidney-shaped seeds. The principal species are, Heart or Bell pepper (Capsicum grossum), Guinea pepper (Capsicum annuum, Fig. 12), and Bird pepper (Capsicum baccatum). All the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities. In hot climates, but particularly in the East and West Indies, and some parts of Spanish America, the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary purposes. It is eaten in large quantities, both with animal and vegetable food; and is mixed, in greater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of sauces. Cayenne pepper is made from the fruit of different species of capsicum. This fruit, when ripe, is gathered, dried in the sun, and then pounded; and the powder is mixed with a certain portion of salt, and kept, for use, in closely stopped bottles. Of late years Cayenne pepper has been introduced into most of the countries of Europe; and it is now very generally used as a poignant ingredient in soups and highly seasoned dishes. Its taste is extremely acrid, and it leaves a 69. The GUINEA PEPPER, or ANNUAL CAPSICUM (Fig. 12), is a slender herbaceous plant, with smooth leaves, white flowers, single flower stalks, and smooth, shining fruit of oblong shape, and usually of red and yellow colour. This plant is a native both of the East and West Indies, and is considered the most hardy of the whole tribe of capsicum. In many parts of the South of Europe, its fruit is eaten green by the peasants at their breakfasts, and is preferred by them to onions or garlic. The fruit of all the species may be rendered useful in domestic economy, either as a pickle, or as cayenne pepper. For the latter, it may be dried before a fire, and ground to powder in a common pepper-mill. 70. The BUCK-THORN (Rhamnus catharticus) is a spinous shrub, which grows in thickets and hedges, and has clusters of small green flowers, globular black berries, and somewhat oval leaves, serrated at the edge. About the month of September the berries of the buck-thorn begin to ripen; and, if these are bruised when perfectly ripe, they yield a green tint. They are made into the sap-green which is used by painters in water-colours, by evaporating their juice to the consistence of a gum. From the juice of the unripe berries, mixed with alum, a yellow dye is obtained, which is employed by dyers, and also for staining maps or paper. If the fruit be gathered late in the autumn the juice is purple. The syrup of buck-thorn berries is sometimes used in dropsies and other complaints, though there are objections to it from its occasioning sickness and griping. The berries have a faint disagreeable smell, and a nauseous bitter taste. It is not The inner bark of the buck-thorn is said to yield a medicine preferable to that afforded by the berries, but it is an extremely powerful one. 71. NUX VOMICA, or VOMIC NUT, is a round, flat seed, about an inch in diameter, of greyish brown colour, and horny consistence, the produce of a tree (Strychnos nux vomica) which grows in the East Indies. The tree is of large size, and has somewhat oval leaves, in pairs, each marked with three or five strong ribs. The young branches have swelled joints. The flowers are in a kind of umbels at the extremity of the branches. The fruit which produces the vomic nut is a species of berry, about the size of a small apple, and covered with a hard substance somewhat resembling that of the pomegranate (154), and of beautiful orange colour when ripe. This fruit is filled with a pulp which contains the seeds. There is so great a consumption of nux vomica, that the quantity vended at the East India Company's sales, in 1808, was about five tons' weight, and its price about nineteen shillings per hundred weight, exclusive of the duty. It is imagined that public brewers sometimes use this drug in the adulteration of ale and porter, for the purpose of rendering it more intoxicating than it otherwise would be. It is employed for the destruction of vermin; and is said to be quickly fatal to dogs, foxes, wolves, and most other quadrupeds. When pounded and mixed with oatmeal, it is used for the killing of rats. Yet deleterious as this drug is, it has lately been employed on the Continent, as a medicine of great efficacy, in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and some other complaints; but its administration ought only to be attempted by medical men. An extract of nux vomica has lately been imported from India; but it is not generally known for what purpose. 72. The TEAK-TREE (Tectonia grandis) is a valuable species of timber, which grows in the forests of the East Indies. This tree attains the height of fifty feet and upwards. Its leaves are somewhat oval, slightly scalloped, rough on the upper side, and clad with a white down beneath; and its flowers are in bunches, small, white, and fragrant. For the building of ships, teak-wood is esteemed superior to every kind of timber except oak. It is said to be almost incorruptible in water; and its bitterness preserves it from the attack of worms. For all the purposes of carpentry, teak is the most useful timber that is produced in Asia. It is easily wrought, and is peculiarly strong and durable. That which grows on the coast of Malabar is considered the best; but the greatest quantity is obtained from Pegu. The former is nearly all hill timber, whereas the latter is the produce of a low and flat country. In India much of the furniture is made of teak wood. The attention of government has of late been called to the cultivation of this timber; and great encouragement is now given to an extensive propagation of it. In the present scarcity of oak timber in England, the increase of teak in the East is become an object of importance to the prosperity of our navy. Its culture has also been recommended in our West Indian islands, the climate and soil of which are considered nearly similar to those of its native country. 73. MANGOS, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit of an East Indian tree (Mangifera Indica) pickled in vinegar. The mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. The flowers spring, in a loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems. The fruit of this tree, when ripe, is as large as a goose's egg, and is much esteemed in India, on account of its invigorating odour; which, it is imagined, will restore health to persons in a declining state. Beneath its rough shell there is a kernel, similar to that of the almond, which may be eaten either fresh or preserved. From the expressed juice of this fruit the Indians prepare a kind of wine. When intended for pickling, the fruit is gathered in an unripe state. An imitation of mangos is made in our own country with a particular sort of melon. A small square piece is cut from the side of the melon, through which the seeds are taken out. It is then filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and afterwards pickled with vinegar and spices. Large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos. 74. RED CURRANTS are the fruit of a well known shrub (Ribes rubum), which is cultivated, in gardens; and which also grows wild in woods or thickets of some of the northern parts of England. Its bunches are smooth and pendant; and its flowers are flattish. The utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established. Its juice, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an agreeable substance, called currant jelly, which is much employed in sauces and for other culinary purposes; and also in the cure of sore throats and colds. The French frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and water, as a beverage; and, by many persons, this mixture is preferred to orgeat or lemonade. The juice of currants is a valuable remedy in obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the stomach. This juice, fermented with a proper quantity of sugar, becomes a palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping; and which, with care, may be kept for twenty years and upwards. Modes of making this, as well as other British wines, are to be found in all the domestic receipt books. The inner bark, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice; and, by some medical men, it has been administered in dropsical complaints. White and flesh-coloured currants have, in every respect, the same qualities as the red species. 75. BLACK CURRANTS are the fruit of a garden shrub (Ribes nigrum) which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers oblong. The berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red; and, in some parts of Siberia, are said to attain the size of a hazel nut. They are occasionally made into wine, jelly, and rob or syrup. The two latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been denominated squinancy or quincy berries. The leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinal virtues. An infusion of them, in the manner of tea, is very grateful, and, by many persons, is preferred to tea. The tender leaves tinge common spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the young roots is useful in fevers of the eruptive kind. Black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges, and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of Norfolk. The dried currants of the shops do not belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape (79). 76. GOOSEBERRIES are the fruit of a prickly shrub (Ribes grossularia) which grows wild in Cheshire, Lancashire, and several parts of Yorkshire. Few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries. For culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally employed before they are ripe; but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit. Wine made of Gooseberries vary much in colour, size, and quality. Some are smooth, and others hairy. Some are red, others green, and others yellow or amber coloured. Wild gooseberries are greatly inferior, in size, to those which are cultivated in gardens. 77. IPECACUANHA (Viola ipecacuanha) is a medicinal root, small, wrinkled, bent, and contorted into a great variety of shapes; which is imported from the West Indies and South America, and is given as an emetic. There are three kinds of ipecacuanha: ash-coloured or grey, brown, and white. Of these, the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use, from its being more efficacious than the white, and less violent than the brown. Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe towards the middle of the seventeenth century; but it was not admitted into general use until about the year 1686, when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of Louis the Fourteenth of France. Its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid; and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage. It is one of the mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted; and is administered in powder, as a wine, and as a tincture. It has this peculiar advantage, that, if it do not operate as an emetic, it passes off without injury by the skin or bowels. In very small doses it is efficacious in obstinate coughs, and in several other complaints. 78. VINES are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description, and for the dried currants of the shops. Several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of the whole is the common vine (Vitis vinifera of LinnÆus). The earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of Europe is stated to have been about the year 280, under the sanction of Probus, the Roman Emperor, who, throughout his whole dominions, was a zealous encourager of agricultural pursuits. There can be no doubt that vines were anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine, and that there were vineyards of considerable extent in Gloucestershire, Hampshire, and some other counties; but, as vines are principally found to flourish in inland countries, lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of latitude, it is evident that there can be no part of Great Britain sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation. Any person who has seen a hop garden, may easily form an idea of the appearance of a vineyard. Vines are usually propagated by slips, cuttings, or offsets from the roots. These, when they have obtained a sufficiency of roots, are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the vineyard, the soil of which ought to be light and rich. They are placed, in this ground, in rows, and at regular intervals, leaving space sufficient for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them; and as soon as the rooted plants are three years old, they begin to bear fruit. The season for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year, before the sap begins to rise; and about the time when the flowers appear, the plants are fastened to poles, for the The vintage, which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country, commences in the early part of autumn. The villagers assemble in the respective vineyards under the direction of overseers. The reaping of the grapes is, in general, performed in three distinct gatherings. The first of these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches, carefully clearing away from them every grape that appears green or decayed: the second is confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the others; and those which are nearly green, withered, or decayed, are gathered last. To obtain the juice from the grapes, they are subjected to the operation of large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our own country (the separate gatherings being still kept apart), and the juice is received into vessels fixed for that purpose. Afterwards it undergoes the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine. By the ancients the juice was obtained by treading the grapes. This practice is alluded to in various parts of Scripture, but perhaps in none are the characteristics of the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of Isaiah concerning Moab: "And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there be any shouting: the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses; I have made their vintage-shouting to cease." The treading of grapes is still practised in several parts of the world. The ancients frequently kept their wine in skins, or leathern bags, well secured at the seams; hence the passage in the gospels; "neither do men put new wine into old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." The kinds of wine are extremely various. The difference which exists betwixt them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in the species of grapes, as in the quality of the fruit, produced by the varieties of soil, cultivation, and climate to which they are subject. This difference likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermentation, and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced. (a) Portuguese Wines.—Of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in England, none are so much in request as red port. This has its name from the city of Oporto, in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it are chiefly cultivated. A great proportion, however, of the port that is consumed in England, is said to be mixed with a Spanish red wine of inferior quality, or to be otherwise adulterated. Red port is brought over in casks called pipes, which measure 138 gallons each, and ought to fill fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure. The difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much depend upon the quality of the grape, as upon the mode in which the wines are prepared. The juice of red grapes, if carefully pressed, and fermented separately from the skins, forms a white wine. If the skins be pressed so as to discharge the colouring matter they contain, or, if they be allowed to remain in the juice during the fermentation, the wine assumes a red tinge. White port, and Lisbon, are two kinds of white wine which we receive from Portugal. Of these, the former was much in demand some years ago, but it is now seldom called for; the latter is still in use. (b) French Wines.—Many excellent wines are produced in France. That usually considered the best is Burgundy, a red wine of very delicate flavour, which has its name from the province where it is made. The wines of the neighbourhood of Orleans, however, No French white wine has so much celebrity as Champaigne. This is of two kinds; one of which, called still or quiet Champaigne, has gone through the whole process of fermentation; the other, which has the name of sparkling Champaigne, has been bottled before the fermentation was complete: this, consequently, proceeds slowly in the bottle, and causes the wine, on the drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass. Vin de Grave is produced in the vicinity of Bourdeaux, and the lower parts of Gascoigne: Pontac is made in Guienne; and Frontignac and Muscadel are white wines, the delicious productions of Languedoc. (c) Spanish Wines.—The country about Xeres, in Andalusia, is celebrated for a grape which produces an excellent wine called Sherry. There are several French and English houses at Xeres and Seville which trade, to great extent, in this wine. It is very strong, and full-bodied, owing, in a great degree, to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed. In the province of Valencia, some of the proprietors have wines of different kinds, sixty, eighty, and even a hundred years old, the prices of which differ according to their age. Rota, in Seville, produces a rich and sweet white wine; and the country around Malaga, near Gibraltar, is celebrated for white wine which is known by that name; and so assiduously is the cultivation of the vine there pursued, that the export of the produce of the vineyards yields (d) Italian Wines.—Notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the wines of Italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in that country are thin and bad. Certain vineyards on mount Vesuvius, however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine called Lachryma Christi. (e) German Wines.—Germany produces many excellent wines, of which Tokay, Hock, Rhenish, and Moselle, are the most celebrated. Tokay has its name from a town in Hungary, near which it is chiefly made. The quantity of this wine is so small that, even on the spot where it is manufactured, it is sold at a very high price. It is made by mixing with the common grapes a portion of luscious, half-dried, and shrivelled grapes; the latter being absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine. The two kinds of grapes are pressed separately, and the juice is afterwards mixed, fermented, and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in which it is to continue. The best Tokay does not long remain in the place where it is made, a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the nobility in other parts of Hungary. Tokay is certainly a fine wine, but is no way adequate to the price for which it is sold. Several years ago it could not be purchased, even in Hungary, for much less than half a guinea of English money per bottle; and yet there are few Englishmen, who, except on account of its (f) Madeira and Teneriffe Wines.—To the Madeira and Canary islands we are indebted for some excellent white wines. Of these Madeira wine is considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has been ripened by conveyance into a hot climate. The number of pipes of Madeira annually made is about 30,000. The grapes, when gathered, are put into wooden vessels, and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them. The Canary Islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was formerly in great esteem under the name of Canary sack, and is now usually called Malmsey Madeira. The genuine Malmsey wine, which is of sweet and luscious flavour, and rich golden yellow colour, is the produce of Malvesia, one of the Greek islands, and thence had originally its name, the French merchants denominating it Vin de Malvesia: but so little is now made that few persons can possess it. Teneriffe wine, when two or three years old, has much the flavour of Madeira, but, after this age, it becomes so sweet and mellow, as somewhat to resemble Malaga. (g) Cape Wines.—There are produced, at the Cape of Good Hope, two kinds of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wine, called red and white Constantia. The The juice of unripe grapes has a harsh, sour, and rough taste. This, under the name of verjuice, was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other purposes. The young twigs of the vine, when dried, cut into small pieces, and moistened with water, afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses. The leaves and tendrils have an astringent taste, which it is probable they would impart to British made wines, and thus render them somewhat similar to foreign wines. The wood of the vine, reduced to charcoal, is used by painters for drawing outlines; and, from the seeds or stones, a kind of oil is sometimes made, which can scarcely be distinguished from olive oil. These stones, when purified, moderately roasted, and ground to a coarse powder, form a tolerable substitute for chocolate. Brandy is a spirituous liquor, produced by the distillation of wine; and prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe. The principal manufactories of this spirit are in France, particularly in Languedoc, and Anjou, whence comes the well-known Cognac brandy. In addition to the preceding uses of the vine, we have to add those of its fruit in a recent state, called grapes, as a delicious addition to our desserts; and of this fruit, in a dried state, under the appellation of raisins and currants. Raisins are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until they are perfectly ripe, and have been dried. They are occasionally dried in ovens. Sometimes the clusters, being tied several together, are dipped in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches, with a certain portion of slaked lime, and are then dried by exposure to the sun. The best fruit of this description are the sun, and jar raisins; both of which are dried in the sun, without any preparation. These are imported from the southern countries of Europe; and also from the Asiatic provinces of Turkey. They are principally used for desserts, whilst Malaga raisins, and some other kinds, are employed for culinary purposes and the making of wine. 79. The CURRANTS of commerce are a small kind of raisins, or dried grapes, which are produced in the Grecian Archipelago, and particularly in the islands of Zante and Cephalonia. The chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of Corinth, whence they obtained the name of Corinths, since corrupted to currants, Few, however, are now produced there, the vineyards having been neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the Turks not allowing large vessels to enter the gulf for their The harvest commences in the month of August, and as soon as the grapes are plucked from the trees, they are spread to dry, upon a floor prepared for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may run off, and not injure the fruit. When sufficiently dry, the currants are cleaned, and laid up in magazines, being poured into them through a hole, and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron instrument. They are packed for exportation in large casks, and by persons who have their feet greased in order to tread them close. The principal consumption of currants is in England; but the inhabitants of the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them. They imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth, and are entirely ignorant of our luxury of Christmas pies, and plum puddings. A small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of Spain. DIGYNIA.80. BEET (Beta vulgaris) is a well known fleshy or succulent root, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several countries of the south of Europe. There are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red. Red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices: it is, however, sometimes pickled, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. The roots may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but they do not attain their full size and perfection till the month of October. When good they are It has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt, if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. The beer, made from beet, has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and little inferior to that prepared from malt. From white beet the French, during the late war, endeavoured to prepare sugar; that article, as a British colonial produce, having been prohibited in France. For this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible after they were taken from the earth. When cold, they were sliced, and afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of syrup. The sugar was obtained, from this syrup, by crystallization. From 110 pounds' weight of the roots, 41½ pounds of juice were obtained, which, on further evaporation, yielded somewhat more than 4¼ pounds of brown sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced four pounds of well grained white powder sugar. The residuum, together with the syrup or molasses which remained, produced after distillation, 3½ quarts of rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum. 81. MANGEL WURZEL or ROOT OF SCARCITY, is a plant of the beet tribe (a variety of Beta cicla) with large and red veined leaves; those arising from the root being on footstalks, and those of the stem being without stalks, and the flowers growing in threes. The farmers, in some parts of Germany, cultivate this plant as food for cattle, and they are said to prefer it, for that use, to potatoes, turnips, carrots, and indeed to most other vegetables. It was introduced to the public notice in England, by the late Dr. Lettsom; and it has been strongly recommended, not only for the feeding of cattle, but also for the use of man. Both the leaves and root grow to very large size; and the former, which 82. BARILLA is the Spanish name of a plant (Salsola soda) from the ashes of which is produced the salt called kali or soda. Soda is also procured from the ashes of PRICKLY SALTWORT (Salsola kali), SHRUBBY SALTWORT (Salsola fructicosa), and numerous plants of other tribes. On the shores of the Mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is pursued to considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. When at a sufficient state of maturity, the plants are pulled up by the roots, dried, and afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. In some places, this is done in ovens constructed for the purpose; and in others, in trenches dug near the sea. The ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass, almost as hard as stone. This mass is afterwards broken into pieces of convenient size for exportation. The best sort of Spanish soda is in dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the touch, and it externally abounds in small cavities. Its taste is sharp, corrosive, and strongly saline. Soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories. See the uses of minerals, Vol. i. No. 200. 83. ELMS are forest-trees well known in almost every part of England. There are several species, of which, however, only three, the COMMON ELM (Ulmus campestris, Fig. 61,) WYCH HAZEL, or BROAD-LEAVED ELM (Ulmus montana, Fig. 62,) and DUTCH ELM (Ulmus suberosa), grow in this country without cultivation. They are easily distinguishable from most other forest-trees, by their leaves being rough, and doubly serrated at the edge. Of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and have The Dutch elm is grown in most parts of England. The common elm, though plentiful in Worcestershire, Middlesex, and some other southern counties, is said to be rare further north than Grantham or Stamford. The wych hazel is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of South Britain. The use of the elm as timber is chiefly confined to rough and inferior work. Implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it; and it is employed for waggons, carts, mill-wheels, water-pipes, low-priced chairs, blocks for hat-makers, and various other purposes; and among the lower and middling classes, almost exclusively, for coffins. The preference which it has obtained for the latter purpose, is supposed to have originated in its peculiar durability in moist situations. Some of the northern writers state that, from the inner bark of the elm, if stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, a very palatable kind of beer may be brewed; and that this bark, dried and ground to powder, has, in times of scarcity, been mixed with meal to make bread. It is occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous complaints; and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism, dropsy, and other diseases. The young leaves may be used for the feeding of silk-worms. Few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows, along the sides of roads, and along shady walks; but in the latter case the numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the ground clear. 84. GENTIAN is a bitter drug, the dried root of a plant (Gentiana lutea) which grows wild amongst the Alps, and in other mountainous parts of the Continent. The flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high, strong, smooth, and erect. The leaves which grow upon its lower part are spear-shaped and ribbed, and those on the upper part are concave, smooth, and egg-shaped. The flowers, which are large and yellow, grow round the upper part of the stem on strong footstalks, and are divided at the edge into five or more segments. The calyx is a kind of sheath. Gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine; and is of considerable service in fevers, and in such complaints as arise from weakness of the stomach. It is externally of a brown colour, and internally yellowish or bright red. Its taste is at first sweetish, but immediately afterwards bitter and pungent. As a simple bitter, it is rendered more grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic; and, for this purpose, orange-peel is commonly employed. An extract of gentian root, boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey, is kept in the shops. 85. GARDEN CARROT (Daucus carota) is a plant too well known to need any description. In few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more conspicuous than in the carrot. The wild plants, which are common in most parts of England, have a root so small and woody, that no one could suppose they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the garden carrot. The various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. But, although it contains much nutriment, this root is difficult of digestion; particularly if eaten raw, or imperfectly boiled. Carrots are an excellent fodder for cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows, in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great increase of milk. If carrots be boiled with their wash, hogs will thrive well upon them. In some parts of England this vegetable has been cultivated as a winter food for deer; and the leaves have sometimes been made 86. ROCK SAMPHIRE (Crithmum maritimum) is an umbelliferous plant, with fleshy, spear-shaped leaflets, and small but regular-shaped white flowers. The cliffs of Dover have long been celebrated for the production of this vegetable, which has received an additional interest from the notice that Shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it: "Half-way down Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!" It is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of England, as well as in Italy, France, and Spain; and generally in inaccessible situations. In some parts of England the leaves of samphire pickled in vinegar are in use for the table: they are also used in salads, and for other culinary purposes. But their place is frequently supplied by a much more common plant, which grows in salt marshes, and has the name of marsh samphire (Salicornia). This, 87. ASAFŒTIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant (Ferula asafoetida) which grows in the mountains of some parts of Persia. The leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval, flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines. No one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful, and garlic-like odour of asafoetida, can well forget it. If exposed to the air, but particularly when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding this, it constitutes a favourite seasoning, for food, with the inhabitants of many of the eastern countries of the world. The Banian Indians, who never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes; and, before their meals, they even rub their mouths with it, to stimulate their appetite. It is sometimes used by our own cooks, but in very small quantity, in place of garlic. In many parts of Arabia and Persia, asafoetida is much esteemed as a remedy for internal diseases, and even as an external application to wounds; and, with us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several disorders. It has been applied with success, in the cure of hooping-cough and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great relief. It is imported in masses of various sizes and form, and of yellow, brown, or bluish colour, sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces. The plant from the root of which asafoetida is produced grows in the mountains which surround the small town of Disgnun, in Persia; and, at the season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. The upper part of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat above the surface of the ground. The harvest commences when the leaves begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of the place, in four different journeys to the mountains. The demand for the article in In the year 1784, the asafoetida plant was introduced into the Botanic garden at Edinburgh, from seeds which had been sent by Dr. Guthrie of Petersburgh to Dr. Hope. The ferula tribe consists of nine or ten known species of plants, and it is supposed that asafoetida is yielded by several of them. In some parts of the Levant the sailors are said to use the stalks of a species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another. This custom is of great antiquity, and explains a passage of Hesiod, who, speaking of the fire stolen from heaven by Prometheus, says that he carried it in a ferula. The foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus Siculus informs us of Prometheus, that he was the inventor of the steel with which fire is struck from flint; and in all probability that prince made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder, to convey it from one place to another. 88. CORIANDER is a small globular seed, produced by an annual umbelliferous plant (Coriandrum sativum), with leaves in slender segments, and small whitish flowers, that grows wild in Suffolk and Essex, and is cultivated in several parts of England. In several farms in Essex and Kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued to considerable extent. This is done solely for the seed, which is used by distillers, druggists, and confectioners. In some parts of the North of Europe it is ground and mixed with dough, to give an aromatic flavour to bread. Coriander is usually grown with teasel (53) and caraway (91); but, as neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they have been sown, the coriander is harvested without interfering with the other crops. In this labour, which usually commences about the beginning of July, women and children are principally employed: and, to prevent the seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost, each stem is cut separately. The stems are then carried into some convenient part of the field, and threshed all together upon a sail cloth. So luxuriantly, and, at the same time, so abundantly does this plant grow in a wild state, in some of the southern parts of Europe, as almost to choke the growth of wheat and other grain. Every part of it, except the seed, has a fetid and disagreeable smell. The seeds, when taken in large quantities, have been considered injurious; but Dr. Withering states, that he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect. 89. PARSNIP is the root of an umbelliferous plant (Pastinaca sativa), with winged and serrated leaves, and small yellow flowers, which is cultivated in kitchen gardens, and which also grows wild on the borders of ploughed fields in several parts of England. The wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other, but particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent, and those of the former being slender and woody. Parsnips are propagated by seed sown in February or March, and the roots are in perfection about October. These, besides their use as a vegetable for the table, are of great value for the feeding of cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. Land in Guernsey, which lets for 7l. an acre, is sown with parsnips to feed cattle; and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer than it would otherwise be, but yields butter of fine saffron colour and excellent taste. If parsnips be washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses will eat them. They will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time; and for the feeding of hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots. As food for mankind they are considered extremely nutritive; and may, with great advantage, be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages. It is, however, said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring, because, at that season, the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the seed, they are then unwholesome. Parsnips abound in saccharine juice; and various experiments have, in vain, been made with a view to extract sugar from them. In several parts of Ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing; and, when properly fermented, they afford an agreeable beverage. The seeds are considered by some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers. 90. FENNEL (Anethum foeniculum) is a well known plant, which is cultivated in gardens, and grows wild in several parts of England. The leaves of fennel, both boiled and raw, are used in sauce for several kinds of fish. The tender buds are eaten in salads; and, in Italy, the stalks are sometimes blanched as winter salad. A distilled water, prepared from the seeds, is occasionally administered as a medicine; and there was formerly a notion that the roots were peculiarly valuable, as a remedy in several diseases, but they are now almost wholly disregarded. 91. CARAWAY is a small well known seed, produced by an umbelliferous plant (Carum carui), with smooth and double winged leaves, narrow leaflets, and small white, or pale flesh-coloured flowers, of which the petals are bent inward, so as to become heart-shaped. The seeds of caraway have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic taste. They are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes, and for other purposes. Incrusted with sugar, they are called caraway comfits. They are also distilled with spirituous liquors, to improve their flavour; and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders. An essential oil and a spirit are also prepared from them. In the spring of the year the leaves are sometimes used in soups, or boiled with pot-herbs. The roots may be converted into an agreeable pickle; and, if simply boiled, they are said by Parkinson to be better than parsnips. This plant grows wild in several parts of England, but particularly in meadows and pastures near Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk. It is much cultivated in Essex and Kent, sometimes alone, and sometimes mixed with teasel (53) and coriander (88). The season for cutting it is about the beginning of July; and it is threshed in the field on a cloth, in the same manner as rape-seed (187). 92. ANISE-SEEDS are the production of an umbelliferous annual plant (Pimpinella anisum), which grows wild in Egypt, Syria, and other Eastern countries. They are roundish and striated, flatted on one side, and pointed at one end; and of pale colour, inclining to green. Attempts were made more than two hundred years ago to cultivate anise in this country, but the summers of our climate are seldom warm enough to bring the plant to perfection. It has consequently been found necessary to import the seed from Malta and Spain, where it is cultivated to considerable extent. Anise-seeds have an aromatic smell, and a pleasant warm taste, accompanied with some degree of 93. PARSLEY (Apium petroselinum) is an annual umbelliferous plant too common to need any description. The uses of parsley, in our kitchens, both for sauce and garnish, are numerous and well known. It is, however, poisonous to several kinds of birds; and, although so commonly used at table, facts have been adduced from which it would appear that, with some persons, it occasions epilepsy, or at least aggravates the fits in those who are subject to that disease. Inflammation in the eyes has also been attributed to the use of it. Parsley is eaten with great avidity by sheep, and has been recommended for use in several diseases of those animals, as well as in some diseases of horses. Both the roots and seed are employed in medicine. The former have a sweetish taste, accompanied with a slight warmth, and a flavour somewhat resembling that of the carrot: the latter are warm and aromatic. Parsley is a native of Sardinia, and propagated by seed, which is usually sown about the month of March. 94. CELERY (Apium graveolens) is a well known plant belonging to the same tribe as parsley. In a wild state celery is found in ditches and marshes of several parts of England, and is a small, acrid, and noxious plant, called smallage: but, when cultivated, it entirely loses these properties. It is grown in trenches, and is earthed up for the purpose of blanching or whitening the lower parts. The seeds are sown in spring, and the plants may be taken out for use towards the end of the autumn. 95. COPAL is a somewhat resinous substance, obtained from a tree (Rhus copallinum) the produce of America, which has winged and very entire leaves, the foot-stalks membranaceous and jointed. We annually import considerable quantities of copal from the Spanish colonies in America, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of yellowish or brown colour, and others are whitish and semi-transparent. When copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and thinly spread upon wood, metal, or any other firm substance, so that the liquid may evaporate, the copal remains perfectly transparent; and forms one of the most beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined. The varnish thus formed has the name of copal varnish, and is said to have been first discovered in France. One mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil (97); another, by mixture with oil of turpentine; and a third, by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine. The particular processes are described in the fourth volume of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry, fifth edition; but they are too long and intricate for insertion here. Copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other similar articles. TRIGYNIA.96. The COMMON ELDER (Sambucus nigra) is a wild English shrub, distinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets, its clusters of small white flowers divided into five principal branches, and the small black or purple berries by which these are succeeded. The uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs. There is scarcely any part of this Sir J. E. Smith has remarked that this tree is, as it were, a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, and that it is not quite neglected even by professional men. Ointments have been made of the green inner bark, and of the leaves. The dried flowers, infused in water, are used in fomentations, or as tea: and, mixed with butter-milk, they are sometimes employed as a wash for the face; and the clusters of flowers, before they open, may be made into a delicious pickle, to eat with boiled mutton. The berries are boiled into a rob, which is useful in sore throats, colds, and hoarsenesses. In addition to their medicinal services, the leaves are sometimes thrown into the subterraneous paths of moles, under an impression that their smell will drive away those noxious animals. If turnips, cabbages, fruit trees, or corn, all of which are subject to blight from various kinds of insects, be strongly whipped with the green leaves and branches of elder, insects will not attack them; and an infusion of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such flowers as they wish to preserve from the devastation of caterpillars. Elder flowers have an agreeable flavour, which they impart, in distillation, to water: they are likewise used to give a flavour to vinegar. The berries are poisonous to poultry, but their juice, properly fermented, makes a pleasant and wholesome wine; and, in Germany, a very pure and strong spirit is distilled from them. The juice of elder berries is sometimes employed to give a red colour to raisin or other sweet wine. The young shoots of this shrub are filled with an exceedingly light pith, which is cut into balls for The elder will grow and thrive in almost any soil and situation; but, as every part of this shrub has an unpleasant narcotic smell, people ought to be cautious not to sleep under its shade, as, in such case, it might prove of serious injury to them. TETRAGYNIA.97. FLAX is the produce of an annual plant (Linum usitatissimum, Fig. 37), with spear-shaped leaves, and blue flowers, which is cultivated in several parts of Great Britain, and grows wild in corn-fields and sandy pastures of some of the southern counties. The stems of these plants rise to the height of about two feet. The seed vessels and leaves of the calyx are sharp pointed, and the flowers have each five scolloped petals. It is supposed that we were originally indebted for this plant to those parts of Egypt which are annually inundated by the Nile; but the time of its introduction into this country is unknown. Its utility is incalculable. To it we are indebted for the linen we wear, for our sheets, table-cloths, and numerous other indispensable articles of clothing and domestic economy; and although cotton might, in some degree, supply its place, those persons who have been accustomed to the comforts of linen would be little desirous of the exchange. The cultivation of flax is pursued to considerable extent in some parts of the British dominions. The seed imported from Riga and Holland is generally, though perhaps erroneously, esteemed the best. It is sown in March or April; and the plants, when nearly ripe, are pulled up by the roots. These, if flax and not seed be the object of the crop, are either placed in small parcels upon the surface of the land, for exposure to the sun, to dry; or they are immediately conveyed to the place where they are to undergo the process called watering. For this purpose they are loosely tied in small bundles, placed in pools or ponds of soft The flax, by the above process, having been separated from the stalks, it subsequently undergoes various dressings, according to the purposes for which it is to be used. When the plants have been grown for seed, they are pulled as before, and then laid together by handfuls upon the ground, with the seed ends towards the south, that they may be the better exposed to the sun. The next operation is to force off the seed vessels. For this purpose a large cloth is usually spread on some adjacent and convenient spot of ground, and an instrument, called a ripple, is placed in the middle of it. This is a sort of comb, consisting of six, eight, or ten, long, triangular, upright teeth. The seed ends of the flax are pulled repeatedly through the teeth of the comb, by which the parts containing the seed are removed from the stalks. After this the pods and seeds, which have the name of line-seeds, are spread upon a cloth in the sun to dry, and subsequently are threshed, sifted, winnowed, and cleansed. The best seed is generally preserved for sowing, and the second sort yields considerable profit in the oil which is obtained from it by pressure. This, which is called linseed oil, is equally useful in the arts and in medicine. It is occasionally employed for making the soap called green soap. If heat be applied during the pressure of the seeds, the oil attains a yellowish colour and a peculiar smell, and, in this state, it is used by painters and varnishers. An infusion of the After the oil has been expressed, the remaining farinaceous part of the seeds is squeezed together into large masses, called oil-cake which is given as food to oxen. It must be remarked that the water in which flax has been macerated becomes thereby poisonous to cattle; and, on this account, the practice of steeping it in any running stream or common pond was prohibited by an act of Parliament, passed in the reign of Henry the Eighth. |
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