  23. SAFFRON is the orange-coloured pistil, or centre part, of a purple species of crocus (Crocus sativus) which flowers in the autumn, and is chiefly distinguished by having the three extremities of the pistil so long as to hang out of the flower (Fig. 6.) In Cambridgeshire there is a town called Saffron Walden, that has its name from the quantity of saffron which is annually produced in its neighbourhood. The roots of the saffron crocuses are planted at the distance of about five inches from each other, and two inches deep in the ground. As soon as the flowers appear, they are gathered by hand every morning, just before they open; and, as they continue to open in succession for several weeks, the saffron harvest of course continues so long. When the flowers are gathered, they are spread on a table: the upper part of the pistil only is picked out, and the rest of the flower is thrown away. As soon as a sufficient quantity of the pistils have been collected, they are dried in a kind of portable kiln; over this a hair cloth is stretched, and upon it a few sheets of white paper. The saffron is scattered upon these to the thickness of two or three inches, and is then covered with several sheets of paper, over which is laid a coarse blanket five or six times doubled, or a canvas bag filled with straw. As soon as the fire has heated the kiln, a board, on which a weight is put, is placed upon the blanket to press the saffron into a cake. By the end of the first hour, a strong fire being employed, the cake is formed. This is then turned, and, for another hour, is subjected to an equal degree of heat. It is then turned a second time, and a more gentle heat is employed, till the cake becomes dry, during which time it is turned every half hour. A field of saffron will continue in perfection for three or four years, yielding progressively, during this period, more numerous and larger flowers, as well as an increase of the bulbous roots; after which the offsets may be advantageously transplanted to other situations. The saffron which is grown in England is considered superior to any that is imported from other countries. The best saffron may be known by the breadth of the blades. It ought not to be of too deep a red or orange colour, and should be fresh and tough, and have a strong but pleasant aromatic odour. Saffron should not be kept more than twelve months. Saffron was much used by the ancients as a perfume, but, in this respect, their taste was very different from ours. Not only were the halls, theatres, and courts, through which they wished to diffuse an agreeable smell, strewed with this substance, but it was used by them for a scent, in vinous extracts. From saffron, with the addition of wax, the Greeks, as well as the Romans, prepared scented salves. In our own country it was formerly much used in medicine; having been esteemed an excellent remedy in hysterical and other complaints. When taken in small doses, it tends to exhilarate the spirits; but it ought to be used with great moderation. It is sometimes used by bakers, to colour and flavour different kinds of cakes and biscuits. With water or spirits it gives out a beautiful yellow colour; but this is not useful as a dye, as, on exposure to the air, it soon fades; and no means have hitherto been discovered by which it can be fixed and rendered permanent. 24. ORRIS ROOT is the root of a white flowered kind of iris, called Florentine Iris (Iris Florentina), which is a native of Italy, and is distinguished by having two flowers on each stalk, the petals bearded, and the leaves sword-shaped. In a dried state this root is well known on account of its grateful odour, which somewhat approaches that of the violet. It is consequently much used in the Orris-root is chiefly imported from Leghorn. 25. The YELLOW WATER-FLAG, or COMMON IRIS (Iris pseudacorus) is a very conspicuous plant in most of our marshes. It has sword-shaped leaves, and, about the middle of July, bears large and beautiful yellow flowers. The roots of this plant possess qualities which render them capable of being applied to many useful purposes. Their astringency is such that it is supposed they might be employed with great advantage in the tanning of leather. In the island of Jura, one of the Hebrides, they are used for dyeing a black colour; and the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland adopt them instead of galls in the making of ink. For this purpose they are cut into thin slices, and boiled, or infused in water, till the liquid is deeply tinged with blue. This is poured clear off, and the blade of a knife, or some other piece of iron, is put into it, and rubbed hard with a rough white pebble, by which process, after a little while, the liquor becomes perfectly black. A slice of the fresh root, if held between the teeth, will, it is said, almost instantly remove the sensibility, and thus alleviate the pain, of tooth-ache. The leaves of this plant are considered poisonous to all cattle except sheep. 26. The PAPYRUS is a sedge-like plant (Cyperus papyrus), which grows in watery places in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and Madagascar. It has a three-sided stem, many feet in height, which is terminated by a bushy head, consisting of a large and compound clustre of flowers. From this plant the ancients made their paper; and But the papyrus plant was not merely useful for writing upon. The inhabitants of the countries where it is found manufacture it, even to this day, into sail-cloth, mattresses, ropes, and sometimes even into wearing apparel. When the stems are compactly woven together, and plastered, externally, with a kind of resinous substance, so as to prevent the admission of water, they are made into boats. These, though they resemble great baskets in appearance, are of considerable use to the inhabitants. The "ark of bulrushes daubed with slime and pitch," in which the infant Moses was placed, is supposed, by the best commentators, to have been a boat made of this plant. The floral thyrsus which was used to adorn the temples and statues of the gods, was a representation of the tuft of the papyrus. DIGYNIA.27. SUGAR is the concrete or crystallized juice of the sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, Fig. 5), a plant, much cultivated both in the East and West Indies, which has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high, long and flat leaves of greenish yellow colour, and flowers in bunches. The cultivation of the sugar-cane is pursued to great extent in the islands of the West Indies, where, about The season for planting it commences about the beginning of August. This operation is performed by laying the canes in rows, in trenches formed for the purpose. Roots issue from each joint; and, in the course of nine or ten months, the stems which rise from these respective roots, and constitute the sugar crop, attain their perfect state. The saccharine juice is contained in a spongy pith with which the interior of the plant is filled. When cut down, the leaves are thrown aside as of no use in the manufacture of sugar, and the stems or canes are divided into pieces, each about a yard in length. These are tied together in bundles, and conveyed to the sugar-mill; where they are bruised betwixt three upright wooden rollers covered with iron. The juice, which flows from them, is conducted, by canals, into a large vessel formed for receiving it. The quantity of juice prepared by some of these mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a day. The next operation is called clarifying. For this purpose the juice is conducted, along a wooden gutter lined with lead, to a place called the boiling house, where it is received into copper pans, or caldrons, each placed over a separate fire. A certain proportion of powdered lime is now added to it, for the purpose of taking up any acid which the juice may happen to contain. The heat is then increased until the liquor is nearly in a boiling state. By this process the greatest part of the impurities that were contained in the juice rise to the surface in a scum. The purified liquor is then carefully drawn off, either by a syphon or a cock, leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan. From these pans it is conveyed, by another gutter, or channel, to the grand copper, or evaporating boiler, where the scum, which rises to the surface, is skimmed From the cooler the sugar is removed to the curing-house. This is a large, airy building, furnished with a capacious cistern, for the reception of the molasses. Over the cistern is an open frame of strong joist-work; upon which are placed several empty hogsheads, each open at the head, and having a few holes at the bottom, closed by stalks of the plantain tree thrust through them. The mass of saccharine matter is now put into these hogsheads; the molasses are separated from the sugar, by draining, into the cistern, through the spongy stalks of the plantain; and the remainder, thus entirely crystallized, has the name of muscovado or raw sugar. The article denominated clayed sugar undergoes a process somewhat different. For the preparation of this, the sugar, when taken from the coolers, is put into conical vessels of earthen-ware, each having, at its bottom, a hole, about half an inch in diameter, which, at the commencement of the process, is stopped with a plug. This plug, after the sugar has become perfectly cool, is removed, and the molasses drain through the hole. When these have ceased to run, the surface of the sugar, in the vessel, is covered with fine clay, to a certain thickness, and water is poured upon the clay. This, oozing through it, pervades the whole mass of sugar, re-dissolves the molasses still remaining in it, with some parts of the sugar itself, carries these off through the hole at the bottom, and renders the The further refining of sugar, or forming it into the white conical loaves which are so much used in this country, is the business of the European sugar-bakers. This is done by dissolving the raw sugar in water, boiling the solution in lime water; and then clarifying it with bullock's blood, or the white of eggs, and straining it through woollen bags. After due evaporation it is suffered to cool to a certain degree. It is then poured into conical moulds of unglazed earthen-ware, the summits of which are perforated. Here it concretes into a hard white mass, leaving that part of the syrup, which will not crystallize, to run off through the hole in the point of the cone. The broad end of the cone is then covered with moist clay, the water from which penetrates into the sugar, and displaces and carries off the impurities which, otherwise, would be retained in and discolour it. It is then carefully dried, and receives the name of loaf, or lump sugar. Sugar-candy is formed by boiling down a solution of sugar till it becomes thick; and then removing it into a very hot room, to crystallize upon sticks or strings, placed across small tubs, or other vessels. It is denominated brown or white sugar-candy, according to the quality of the sugar of which it is made. Barley sugar is sugar boiled in barley water, but now more frequently in common water, till it is brittle. It is then rolled on a stone anointed with oil of sweet almonds, and formed into twisted sticks. To give it a colour, a small quantity of saffron is sometimes mixed with it. When sugar was first introduced into this country, it was employed only as a medicine; but it has now become an essential article both of luxury and use. It is the basis of syrups; and is used in cooking, and in confections, preserves, sweetmeats, and liqueurs of every description. Sugar is also sometimes employed in medicine. The juice of the sugar-cane is so palatable, and at the same time so nutritive, that, during the sugar harvest, every creature which partakes freely of it, whether man or animal, appears to derive health and vigour from its use. The meagre and sickly negroes exhibit, at this season, a surprising alteration; they now become fat and healthy. The labouring horses, oxen, and mules, being allowed, almost without restraint, to eat of the refuse plants, and of the scummings from the boiling-house, improve now infinitely more than they do at any other season of the year. Rum is a spirituous liquor distilled from molasses, scummings of the hot cane juice from the boiling house, or raw cane liquor from canes expressed for that purpose, lees (or, as it is called in Jamaica, dunder), and water. The dunder answers the purpose of yeast for the fermentation. Sugar-canes, as large and juicy as those of the West Indies, are cultivated in several parts of Spain, but particularly in the country betwixt Malaga and Gibraltar. They were originally introduced, by the Moors, several centuries ago; and the sugar made from them is of excellent quality. There are sugar mills, in more than twelve different places, on the coast of Grenada, all of which are fully employed: in one village there are four, which cost at least 5,000l. sterling each. 28. OATS are the seeds or grain of an annual plant (Avena sativa, Fig. 14), too well known, and too much cultivated throughout every part of Europe, to need any description. The country from which they were originally imported is not known. The principal use of oats in this country is for the feeding of horses. In the northern parts of England, and in Scotland, they are applied also to the nutriment of man. When simply freed from their husks they are called groats or grits; and, in this state, are much used in broths, and other kinds of nutriment for sick and Oats will thrive in almost any soil, but they are chiefly productive on land that has been newly broken up. They are usually sown in February or March, and the harvest commences about August. Several kinds or varieties are cultivated in different parts of England, such as white oats, black oats, brown or red oats, Tartarian or reed oats, Friezeland oats, Poland oats, and some others, but, of these, the first are considered the most valuable. 29. WHEAT is a well known kind of corn (Triticum hybernum, Fig. 13) which is cultivated in most of the civilized countries of the world, and is supposed to have been originally introduced into Europe, from some part of Asia. No grain is so valuable to the inhabitants of nearly all climates as this; and, by a wonderful ordination of Providence, it is rendered capable of sustaining, without injury, almost the two extremes of heat and cold. Not only does it ripen in Egypt and Barbary, but it ripens equally well in Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden. It constitutes the chief food of the British nation; and its abundance or scarcity regulates, in a great degree, the welfare and prosperity of the inhabitants. The whole annual consumption of grain, in this island, amounts to nearly 25,000,000 quarters; and in London alone, to more than 1,162,100 quarters. Of this by far the greatest proportion is wheat. For the cultivation of this important grain the best lands are rich clays and heavy loam; and, although light soils will produce wheat of excellent quality, yet the crops on the other soils are by far the most The different kinds or varieties of wheat that are cultivated in this country are too numerous to be particularized. Wheat is liable to injury, not only from the attack of insects, but from several kinds of disease, the principal of which are blight, mildew, and smut. In the former the fibres and leaves of the plants are contracted and enfeebled, and the grain is ultimately deprived of sufficient nourishment: by mildew the straw and ear are affected: and by smut the grains, instead of containing their proper substance, become filled with a black or dark brown powder. Wheat flour consists of four distinct principles, gluten, starch, albumen, and a sweet kind of mucilage. And it is a remarkable circumstance, that the gluten, if not similar, has a very near alliance to animal substances. To enumerate the various ways in which preparations from wheat serve for nutriment would be unnecessary, as they are known to every one. Starch is a substance frequently prepared from wheat, and is obtained by the following process. The wheat is put into tubs of water, and exposed, for some days, to the heat of the sun, in order to bring on a proper degree of fermentation, the water being changed twice a day. Having now become sufficiently soft, it is poured into large canvass bags, which are worked or beaten, on a board over an empty vessel, to extract the farinaceous During the late war, when the intercourse betwixt France and the West Indian islands was entirely cut off, several attempts were made in that country to obtain sugar from starch. The process was a long and intricate one; and the success with which it was attended was not such as to render it either practically or permanently useful. Bran is the husk of wheat, separated in grinding. Infusions of bran are, not unfrequently, employed both externally and internally in medicine. They are also sometimes used to cleanse the hands instead of soap. And, in times of scarcity, bran has been advantageously employed in the making of household bread. Wheat straw, when chopped or cut small, forms a wholesome provender for horses and oxen, especially when mixed with green food. It is also used as litter for horses, and is employed as thatch for cottages, houses, and barns. When cut into certain lengths, bleached by means of sulphur, and split, it is plaited, and formed into hats and bonnets. A nutritive substance called Semolina is formed from wheat flour, granulated by a particular process. A patent was granted in the year 1780 to Mr. Jacob Levy, for a method of making it. Previously to this, semolina had been imported from Poland, under the name of Cracow groats. It constitutes a light and wholesome food for invalids, being considered, in this respect, preferable to sago; it may also be made into excellent puddings. Macaroni is a preparation from the finest wheat flour, mixed with eggs, or other glutinous substance. It is chiefly imported from Italy, Sicily, and Germany. Its name implies cut paste, and it is eaten in various ways; on the continent with milk, and with us in soups and Vermicelli is made by a mixture of flour, cheese, the yolks of eggs, sugar and saffron. This, being reduced to a proper consistency, is formed into long slender pieces or threads, like worms, by being forced, with a piston, through a number of little holes, in the end of a pipe made for the purpose. Vermicelli was first brought from Italy, and it is chiefly used in soups and other culinary preparations. 30. BARLEY is a well known kind of corn (Hordeum distichon, Fig. 15.) which grows wild in the island of Sicily, and some other parts of the south of Europe. Next to wheat, this is, in Europe, the most valuable of all the species of grain, especially for growth on light and sharp soils. The seed-time for barley usually commences about the end of March or the beginning of April, and sometimes lasts until the first week in June; and, for the produce, four quarters per acre are considered a fair average crop, and eight quarters a very extraordinary one. Few instances of fecundity in corn are more remarkable than what has been related of two grains of SIX-ROWED BARLEY (Hordeum hexastichon) which were planted in a garden: they produced 113 stalks, nearly all of which yielded ears; and these contained, in the whole, more than 2,500 grains. The principal use to which barley is applied in this country is for the making of malt, from which beer and ale are brewed. For this purpose it is first steeped in water for three or four days. It is then taken out, and suffered to lie, until it begins to sprout or germinate. As soon as the germination has approached a certain state its further progress is prevented by drying the barley in a kiln, heated with coke, charcoal, or straw. The grain has now become mellow and sweet; and, after having been crushed in a kind of mill contrived for the purpose, its saccharine qualities are easily extracted by the Besides the use of barley in brewing, there is in some countries, especially in Scotland and Germany, a great consumption of this grain, for broths, soups, and other food. For this purpose it is freed from its husks and formed into round granules, about the size of small shot, and of a pearly whiteness, which thence have the name of pearl-barley. All except the heart or best part of the grain is thus taken away. The barley, in this state, when boiled, forms a nutritive food; and a decoction of it, properly flavoured with acid, is said to be one of the best beverages that can be adopted in acute diseases. The making of pearl barley is a German invention. In Scotland the lower classes make it by means of hand-mills; and many persons are satisfied with merely ridding the grain of its husks by stamping it in mortars. Barley-meal is occasionally made into bread by the poor; and it is likewise used for the fattening of poultry and swine. From barley-straw a yellowish coloured paper has been manufactured; the making of which was, some years ago, attempted in this country upon a large scale, but without success. 31. RYE (Secale cereale, Fig. 16.) is a kind of grain supposed to have been first introduced into the northern parts of Europe from the island of Crete. As bread corn, sometimes alone, but more commonly mixed with wheat, rye was formerly in great request, particularly in the northern counties of England. This mixture, which is denominated blend-corn, or maslin, is at present partially used, in certain districts, not only It has been remarked, in some districts of France, that rye, from bad seasons, or from other causes, has proved noxious and even poisonous. The grains of the corn, thus degenerated, are black on the outside and tolerably white within; and, when dry, are harder and closer than good grain. Bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of this bad corn, is not distinguishable by the taste, from other rye bread; and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been eaten, it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of the body, and dangerous fevers. The poorer people, however, are those chiefly who are subject to these diseases, as many of them have little other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of corn. In several parts of England rye is sown either by itself, or mixed with tares to be cut whilst green, for the feeding of sheep, cows, and horses. Rye straw is used by brick-makers, and collar-manufacturers; and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns. 32. GRASSES.—By grasses we are to understand such plants as have a round, jointed, and hollow stem, surrounded at each joint with a single leaf, long, narrow, and pointed; and the flowers of which are a kind of chaffy husk. According to this definition, wheat, barley, oats, and rye, properly belong to the grasses, although they are known by the peculiar appellation of corn or grain.[2] To the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great portion of its cheerful appearance, and its beauty. They constitute the general herbage of every country, covering to an immense extent the whole surface of the ground. They are very various in their kinds, the British species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number. To many species of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance; and their seed supply food to birds. 33. SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum, Fig. 17).[3]—This species is usually considered (though it perhaps ought not exclusively to be so) as that to which the hay fields are indebted for their well-known and delightful fragrance. When partially dried it is very odorous; and, if chewed, in a recent state, its stalks are highly aromatic, tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender. The root has an odour somewhat resembling that of musk. A distilled water, which serves as a vehicle for some perfumes, is occasionally prepared from the leaves and flowers of the vernal grass. The dried flowers are employed in some parts of the Continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco. The vernal grass is not very productive, and by some farmers it is considered not palatable for cattle. Others, however, esteem it an useful addition in their meadows; and, from its being generally found in great abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of, and afford excellent mutton, it is at least thought to be a good grass for them. 34. COTTON GRASS (Eriophorum angustifolium, Fig. 18).—The seeds of this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs; and so abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land, particularly in the northern parts of England, that the ground appears almost as if covered with snow. Poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton grass; but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep on. This down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into thread, yet, in combination either with wool or cotton, it may be spun into a strong and uniform yarn, from which gloves, stockings, and cloth, in small quantity, have been made. Its brittleness has been much corrected by a simple chemical process. Wicks for candles have sometimes been made of it. 35. BULL-RUSH (Scirpus lacustris, Fig. 19).—Of the stems of this plant the rush bottoms of chairs are made. Being of soft and pliant texture, totally destitute of roughness, the bull-rush is also sometimes used for the stuffing of pack saddles, making of mats, and thatching of cottages. 36. MEADOW FOX-TAIL GRASS (Alopecurus pratensis, Fig. 20) is a very common but valuable kind, which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures and meadows. It possesses, in a superior degree to any other grass, the three great requisites of quantity, quality, and early growth. The best hay which is brought to London is said to be from meadows where this grass abounds; and, in many parts adjacent to the metropolis, it is extremely abundant. 37. TIMOTHY GRASS, or MEADOW CATS-TAIL (Phleum pratense, Fig. 21), is a grass much cultivated in several parts of North America, and particularly in wet, loamy grounds, where, though coarse and hard, it is found extremely productive and useful. Such Though a native and very common grass in our own country, it is doubtful whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection in which it is found in America. It has, however, been cultivated in England with considerable success; and, when used for green food, for which it is particularly calculated, it may be cut two or three times in one season; but, when intended for hay, it should be cut at least a week before it flowers. 38. FIORIN, or ORCHESTON LONG GRASS (Agrostis stolonifera, Fig. 22), is known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures, and also in cold and stiff arable land, by name of Black Squitch or Bent-grass. It grows with such luxuriance, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the different joints, that the stems are sometimes several feet in length; and, when cultivated as a crop, it has been known to produce, at two cuttings, betwixt seven and eight tons per acre. This grass was first brought into notice as a grass for hay, by a small tract of meadow ground, in which it was cultivated several years ago, at a village called Orcheston, in Wiltshire. Horses, sheep, and cattle are said to be extremely partial to it, and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other. To be in perfection, it requires a moist climate, or a wet soil; and it will grow on cold clays, that are unfitted for other grasses. In Ireland it is called fiorin grass, and, under this appellation, it was first introduced to the public notice in that country, in the year 1810, by the Rev. Dr. Richardson, of Clonfecle, in the county of Antrim. 39. The MEADOW SOFT GRASS, or YORKSHIRE WHITE GRASS (Holcus lanatus, Fig. 25), though it vegetates late in the season, produces an abundant crop, and flourishes well in any moist situation. Both its foliage and flowers are soft and woolly. It is chiefly calculated for the feeding of sheep, and has answered extremely well, when close fed. The hay that is made from it is said to be very injurious to horses, and it is not much relished by cattle. 40. CANARY GRASS (Phalaris Canariensis, Fig. 23).—This grass grows wild in Worcestershire, and some other parts of England. It is, however, often cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are extensively used as food for small birds. 41. PURPLE MELIC GRASS (Melica cÆrulea, Fig. 24) is found in great luxuriance on the turf moors, near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire. The people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms, which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms. This grass occurs in the most barren, sandy, and boggy situations; but, more especially, about pools upon mountainous heaths. 42. REED MEADOW GRASS (Poa aquatica, Fig. 26) is one of the most useful of the British grasses, particularly if grown in wet meadows, or upon the banks of rivers or brooks. In the fenny lands of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer, but forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance. In situations favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six feet, When cut for hay, it is first dried, then bound 43. SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS (Poa pratensis, Fig. 27) is a favourite grass for cattle; and flourishes even on the driest soils, growing wild in meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. In rich meadows of Somersetshire it forms a considerable part of the herbage; and, in those that have been flooded during the winter, it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to exclude every other grass. Notwithstanding this, it possesses the valuable property of resisting excessive drought, and is frequently green in high gravelly pastures, after almost every other grass has been withered. It flowers early, and makes an extremely valuable hay. 44. ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS (Poa annua, Fig. 28).—No grass is more common than this, and none makes a finer turf. It occurs in almost every situation, by the sides of roads, on open and extensive commons; and in many parts of England there are whole meadows of it, without any mixture of other grasses. In those districts of Suffolk which produce the best butter, the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance. It is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass, that it does not suffer injury, but that, on the contrary, it is improved by persons frequently walking over it. Mr. Stillingfleet states that, on the hill near Malvern, in Worcestershire, a walk which had been made for the convenience of the water drinkers, was, in less than a year, nearly covered with it, though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill. This was attributed, in a great measure, to the constant treading upon it, by persons passing to and from the well. 45. CRESTED DOG'S-TAIL GRASS (Cynosurus cristatus, Fig. 29) is extremely common in meadows and pastures, and constitutes a principal part of the turf, on high gravelly or chalky soils, in parks, lawns, and sheep walks: and, from the close and thick turf which it makes, it affords good nourishment to cattle and deer. Parks that are famous for excellent venison contain a great proportion of this grass. In the summer time its seeds afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds. 46. SHEEP'S FESCUE GRASS (Festuca ovina, Fig. 32) has great celebrity as food for horses and cattle, and, in particular, for sheep, which are said to prefer it to all other grasses, and to become fat upon it sooner than upon any other. Though of short growth, its leaves are numerous and succulent. The Tartars are said generally to fix their habitations, during the summer, in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass, from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle. And it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient Tartars are chiefly observed in situations where Sheep's Fescue Grass abounds; this has been considered a test of the great value which that people set upon it. 47. HARD FESCUE GRASS (Festuca duruscula, Fig. 30) is common in pastures, meadows, and waste grounds. It springs early, affords excellent food for all kinds of cattle; and, in good ground, yields a plentiful crop. 48. FLOTE FESCUE GRASS (Festuca fluitans, Fig. 31).—This plant, which grows almost exclusively in wet ditches, and in ponds, is so favourite a food of horses and swine, that they will sometimes even endanger their lives to obtain it. A farmer, who resided some years ago at Ruscomb, in Berkshire, assured Mr. Stillingfleet that he had known a field of four acres Its seeds are small, and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and nutritious qualities. They are annually collected in Poland, and are exported thence, into Germany, and other parts of the continent, under the name of manna seeds. These are used in soups, gruel, and puddings, even by persons of the first rank and consequence. When ground into flour, they are convertible into bread, which is little inferior to that made of wheat. The bran of these seeds is stated by LinnÆus to be useful as a medicine for horses that are troubled with worms. Geese are fond of the seeds, and well know where to find them. It is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto been entirely neglected in England; though without difficulty they might be obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial. 49. The COMMON REED (Arundo phragmites, Fig. 33) grows in ditches, ponds, and by the sides of rivers, attaining the height of six or seven feet, and flowering about the month of July. Reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens, and they are considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury by cold, or blighting winds. They likewise make excellent weavers' combs; and, when nailed across a frame of wood-work, are frequently employed as a foundation for plaster floors. They are sometimes made into chair bottoms; and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings. From the flowers of the reed the country people of Sweden extract a green dye, which they occasionally use for woollen cloth; and we are informed that, from 50. SEA MATWEED (Arundo arenaria, Fig. 34) is an useful and common plant on most of our sandy sea shores. Its cultivation has, at various times, been much encouraged, and even acts of parliament have been passed for its preservation, in consequence of its spreading roots giving stability to the loose, blowing sand, and thus raising a bulwark against the encroachments of the waves. The Dutch are said to have availed themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm several parts of their coasts, which would otherwise have suffered much injury. At Newborough, a town on the south coast of the island of Anglesea, the inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes; and the Danes employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes. The common people of Iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for making bread. 51. RYE GRASS, or RAY GRASS (Lolium perenne, Fig. 35), has, of late years, been cultivated in some countries, to considerable extent, as fodder for cattle. Its agricultural merits were first discovered in Norfolk, and, thence, the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the kingdom; those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a weed in their own fields. In dry pastures, and by road sides, this kind of grass is extremely common. When sown in high or sandy lands, either alone or mixed with clover, it yields an earlier crop than most other grasses; and thus affords food at a season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained. The ray grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is obtained by cultivation; and we are informed that, if sown in a rich and fertile soil, it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant grass. 52. COUCH, or SQUITCH GRASS (Triticum repens, Fig 36), is, in general, considered a troublesome and pernicious weed. The roots strike so deeply into the ground, and extend so widely, that the eradicating of them is frequently attended with difficulty. As the plant lies upon the ground it strikes out fibres from every joint; and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen, that a single joint, when transplanted, has, in the course of twelve months, covered a square yard of land. The roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at Naples, and sold in the market as food for horses. They have a sweetish taste, somewhat resembling that of liquorice; and, in times of scarcity, when dried and ground into meal, they have been converted into bread. A decoction of the roots is sometimes used in medicine. |
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