(p. 25) Cellulose sulphocarbonate.—Further investigations of the reaction of formation as well as the various reactions of decomposition of the compound, have not contributed any essential modification or development of the subject as originally described in the author's first communications. A large amount of experimental matter has been accumulated in view of the ultimate contribution of the results to the general theory of colloidal solutions. But viscose is a complex product and essentially variable, through its pronounced tendency to progressive decomposition with reversion of the cellulose to its insoluble and uncombined condition. The solution for this reason does not lend itself to exact measurement of its physical constants such as might elucidate in some measure the progressive molecular aggregation of the cellulose in assuming spontaneously the solid (hydrate) form. Reserving the discussion of these points, therefore, we confine ourselves to recording results which further elucidate special points.

Normal and other celluloses.—We may certainly use the sulphocarbonate reaction as a means of defining a normal cellulose. As already pointed out, cotton cellulose passes quantitatively through the cycle of treatments involved in solution as sulphocarbonate and decomposition of the solution with regeneration as structureless or amorphous cellulose (hydrate).

Analysis of this cellulose shows a fall of carbon percentage from 44.4 to 43.3, corresponding with a change in composition from C₆H₁₀O₅ to 4C₆H₁₀O₅.H₂O. The partial hydrolysis affects the whole molecule, and is limited to this effect, whereas, in the case of celluloses of other types, there is a fractionation of the mass, a portion undergoing a further hydrolysis to compounds of lower molecular weight and permanently soluble. Thus in the case of the wood celluloses the percentage recovered from solution as viscose is from 93 to 95 p.ct. It is evident that these celluloses are not homogeneous. A similar conclusion results from the presence of furfural-yielding compounds with the observation that the hydrolysis to soluble derivatives mainly affects these derivatives. In the empirical characterisation of a normal cellulose, therefore, we may include the property of quantitative regeneration or recovery from its solution as sulphocarbonate.

In the use of the word 'normal' as applied to a 'bleached' cotton, we have further to show in what respects the sulphocarbonate reaction differentiates the bleached or purified cotton cellulose from the raw product. The following experiments may be cited: Specimens of American and Egyptian cottons in the raw state, freed from mechanical, i.e. non-fibrous, impurities, were treated with a mercerising alkali, and the alkali-cotton subsequently exposed to carbon disulphide. The product of reaction was further treated as in the preparation of the ordinary solution; but in place of the usual solution, structureless and homogeneous, it was observed to retain a fibrous character, and the fibres, though enormously swollen, were not broken down by continued vigorous stirring. After large dilution the solutions were filtered, and the fibres then formed a gelatinous mass on the filters. After purification, the residue was dried and weighed. The American cotton yielded 90.0 p.ct., and the Egyptian 92.0 p.ct. of its substance in the form of this peculiar modification. The experiment was repeated, allowing an interval of 24 hours to elapse between the conversion into alkali-cotton and exposure of this to the carbon disulphide. The quantitative results were identical.

There are many observations incidental to chemical treatments of cotton fabrics which tend to show that the bleaching process produces other effects than the mere removal of mechanical impurities. In the sulphocarbonate reaction the raw cotton, in fact, behaves exactly as a compound cellulose. Whether the constitutional difference between raw and bleached cotton, thus emphasised, is due to the group of components of the raw cotton, which are removed in the bleaching process, or to internal constitutional changes determined by the bleaching treatments, is a question which future investigation must decide.

The normal sulphocarbonate (viscose).—In the industrial applications of viscose it is important to maintain a certain standard of composition as of the essential physical properties of the solution, notably viscosity. It may be noted first that, with the above-mentioned exception, the various fibrous celluloses show but slight differences in regard to all the essential features of the reactions involved. In the mercerising reaction, or alkali-cellulose stage, it is true the differences are considerable. With celluloses of the wood and straw classes there is a considerable conversion into soluble alkali-celluloses. If treated with water these are dissolved, and on weighing back the cellulose, after thorough washing, treatment with acid, and finally washing and drying, it will be found to have lost from 15 to 20 p.ct. in weight. The lower grade of celluloses thus dissolved are only in part precipitated in acidifying the alkaline solution. On the other hand, after conversion into viscose, the cellulose when regenerated re-aggregates a large proportion of these lower grade celluloses, and the final loss is as stated above, from 5 to 7 p.ct. only.

Secondly, it is found that all the conditions obtaining in the alkali-cellulose stage affect the subsequent viscose reaction and the properties of the final solution. The most important are obviously the proportion of alkali to cellulose and the length of time they are in contact before being treated with carbon disulphide. An excess of alkali beyond the 'normal' proportion—viz. 2NaOH per 1 mol. C₆H₁₀O₅—has little influence upon the viscose reaction, but lowers the viscosity of the solution of the sulphocarbonate prepared from it. But this effect equally follows from addition of alkali to the viscose itself. The alkali-cellulose changes with age; there is a gradual alteration of the molecular structure of the cellulose, of which the properties of the viscose when prepared are the best indication. There is a progressive loss of viscosity of the solution, and a corresponding deterioration in the structural properties of the cellulose when regenerated from it—especially marked in the film form. In regard to viscosity the following observations are typical:—

Similarly the cellulose in reverting to the solid form from these 'degraded' solutions presents a proportionate loss of cohesion and aggregating power expressed by the inferior strength and elasticity of the products. Hence, in the practical applications of the product where the latter properties are of first importance, it is necessary to adopt normal standards, such as above indicated, and to carefully regulate all the conditions of treatment in each of the two main stages of reaction, so that a product of any desired character may be invariably obtained.

Incidentally to these investigations a number of observations have been made on the alkali-cellulose (cotton) after prolonged storage in closed vessels. It is well known that starch undergoes hydrolysis in contact with aqueous alkalis of a similar character to that determined by acids [BÉchamp, Annalen, 100, 365]. The recent researches of Lobry de Bruyn [Rec. Trav. Chim. 14, 156] upon the action of alkaline hydrates in aqueous solution on the hexoses have established the important fact of the resulting mobility of the CO group, and the interchangeable relationships of typical aldoses and ketoses. It was, therefore, not improbable that profound hydrolytic changes should occur in the cellulose molecule when kept for prolonged periods as alkali-cellulose.

We may cite an extreme case. A series of products were examined after 12-18 months' storage. They were found to contain only 3-5 p.ct. 'soluble carbohydrates'; these were precipitated by Fehling's solution but without reduction on boiling. They were, therefore, of the cellulose type. On acidifying with sulphuric acid and distilling, traces only of volatile acid were produced. It is clear, therefore, that the change of molecular weight of the cellulose, the disaggregation of the undoubtedly large molecule of the original 'normal' cellulose—which effects are immediately recognised in the viscose reactions of such products—are of such otherwise limited character that they do not affect the constitution of the unit groups. We should also conclude that the cellulose type of constitution covers a very wide range of minor variations of molecular weight or aggregation.

The resistance of the normal cellulose to the action of alkalis under these hydrolysing conditions should be mentioned in conjunction with the observations of Lange, and the results of the later investigations of Tollens, on its resistance to 'fusion' with alkaline hydrates at high temperatures (180°). The degree of resistance has been established only on the empirical basis of weighing the product recovered from such treatment. The product must be investigated by conversion into typical cellulose derivatives before we can pronounce upon the constitutional changes which certainly occur in the process. But for the purpose of this discussion it is sufficient to emphasise the extraordinary resistance of the normal cellulose to the action of alkalis, and to another of the more significant points of differentiation from starch.

Chemical constants of cellulose sulphocarbonate (solution).—In investigations of the solutions we make use of various analytical methods, which may be briefly described, noting any results bearing upon special points.

Total alkali.—This constant is determined by titration in the usual way. The cellulose ratio, C₆H₁₀O₅: 2NaOH, is within the ordinary error of observation, 2: 1 by weight. A determination of alkali therefore determines the percentage of cellulose.

Cellulose may be regenerated in various ways—viz. by the action of heat, of acids, of various oxidising compounds. It is purified for weighing by boiling in neutral sulphite of soda (2 p.ct. solution) to remove sulphur, and in very dilute acids (0.33 p.ct. HCl) to decompose residues of 'organic' sulphur compounds. It may also be treated with dilute oxidants. After weighing it may be ignited to determine residual inorganic compounds.

Sulphur.—It has been proved by Lindemann and Motten [Bull. Acad. R. Belg. (3), 23, 827] that the sulphur of sulphocarbonates (as well as of sulphocyanides) is fully oxidised (to SO₃) by the hypochlorites (solutions at ordinary temperatures). The method may be adapted as required for any form of the products or by-products of the viscose reaction to be analysed for total sulphur.

The sulphur present in the form of dithiocarbonates, including the typical cellulose xanthogenic acid, is approximately isolated and determined as CS₂ by adding a zinc salt in excess, and distilling off the carbon disulphide from a water bath. From freshly prepared solutions a large proportion of the disulphide originally interacting with the alkali and cellulose is recovered, the result establishing the general conformity of the reaction to that typical of the alcohols. On keeping the solutions there is a progressive interaction of the bisulphide and alkali, with formation of trithiocarbonates and various sulphides. In decomposing these products by acid reagents hydrogen sulphide and free sulphur are formed, the estimation of which presents no special difficulties.

In the spontaneous decomposition of the solution a large proportion of the sulphur resumes the form of the volatile disulphide. This is approximately measured by the loss in total sulphur in the following series of determinations, in which a viscose of 8.5 p.ct. strength (cellulose) was dried down as a thin film upon glass plates, and afterwards analysed:

(a) Proportion of sulphur to cellulose (100 pts.) in original.
(b) After spontaneous drying at ordinary temperature.
(c) After drying at 40°C.
(d) As in (c), followed, by 2 hours' heating at 98°.
(e) As in (c), followed by 5 hours' heating at 98°.

The dried product in (b) and (c) was entirely resoluble in water; in (d) and (e), on the other hand, the cellulose was fully regenerated, and obtained as a transparent film.

Iodine reaction.—Fresh solutions of the sulphocarbonate show a fairly constant reaction with normal iodine solution. At the first point, where the excess of iodine visibly persists, there is complete precipitation of the cellulose as the bixanthic sulphide; and this occurs when the proportion of iodine added reaches 3I₂: 4Na₂O, calculated to the total alkali.

Other decompositions.—The most interesting is the interaction which occurs between the cellulose xanthogenate and salts of ammonia, which is taken advantage of by C. H. Stearn in his patent process of spinning artificial threads from viscose. The insoluble product which is formed in excess of the solution of ammonia salt is free from soda, and contains 9-10 p.ct. total sulphur. The product retains its solubility in water for a short period. The solution may be regarded as containing the ammonium cellulose xanthate. This rapidly decomposes with liberation of ammonia and carbon disulphide, and separation of cellulose (hydrate). As precipitated by ammonium-chloride solution the gelatinous thread contains 15 p.ct. of cellulose, with a sp.gr. 1.1. The process of 'fixing'—i.e. decomposing the xanthic residue—consists in a short exposure to the boiling saline solution. The further dehydration, with increase of gravity and cellulose content, is not considerable. The thread in its final air-dry state has a sp.gr. 1.48.

Cellulose Benzoates.—These derivatives have been further studied by the authors. The conditions for the formation of the monobenzoate [C₆H₉O₄.O.CO.Ph] are very similar to those required for the sulphocarbonate reaction. The fibrous cellulose (cotton), treated with a 10 p.ct. solution NaOH, and subsequently with benzoyl chloride, gives about 50 p.ct. of the theoretical yield of monobenzoate. Converted by 20 p.ct. solution NaOH into alkali-cellulose, and with molecular proportions as below, the following yields were obtained:—

An examination of (a) showed that some dibenzoate (about 7 p.ct.) had been formed. The product () was exhaustively treated with cuprammonium solution, to which it yielded about 20 p.ct. of its weight, which was therefore unattacked cellulose.

Under conditions as above, but with 2.5 mol. C₆H₅COCl, a careful comparison was made of the behaviour of the three varieties of cotton, which were taken in the unspun condition and previously fully bleached and purified.

It appears from these results that the benzoate reaction may proceed to a higher limit (dibenzoate) in the case of Egyptian cotton. This would necessarily imply a higher limit of 'mercerisation,' under equal conditions of treatment with the alkaline hydrate. It must be noted that in the conversion of the fibrous cellulose into these (still) fibrous monobenzoates, there are certain mechanical conditions imported by the structural features of the ultimate fibres. For the elimination of the influence of this factor a large number of quantitative comparisons will be necessary. The above results are therefore only cited as typical of a method of comparative investigation, more especially of the still open questions of the cause of the superior effects in mercerisation of certain cottons (see p. 23). It is quite probable that chemical as well as structural factors co-operate in further differentiating the cottons.

Further investigation of the influence upon the benzoate reaction, of increase of concentration of the soda lye, used in the preliminary alkali cellulose reaction, from 20 to 33 p.ct. NaOH, established (1) that there is no corresponding increase in the benzoylation, and (2) that this ester reaction and the sulphocarbonate reaction are closely parallel, in that the degree and limit of reaction are predetermined by the conditions of formation of the alkali cellulose.

Monobenzoate prepared as above described is resistant to all solvents of cellulose and of the cellulose esters, and is therefore freed from cellulose by treatment with the former, and from the higher benzoate by treatment with the latter. Several of these, notably pyridine, phenol and nitrobenzene, cause considerable swelling and gelatinisation of the fibres, but without solution.

Structureless celluloses of the 'normal' type, and insoluble therefore in alkaline lye, treated under similar conditions to those described above for the fibrous celluloses, yield a higher proportion of dibenzoate. The following determinations were made with the cellulose (hydrate) regenerated from the sulphocarbonate:—

Limit of reaction.—The cellulose in this form having shown itself more reactive, it was taken as the basis for determining the maximum proportion of OH groups yielding to this later reaction. The systematic investigations of Skraup [Monatsh. 10, 389] have determined that as regards the interacting groups the molecular proportions 1 OH: 7 NaOH: 5 BzCl, ensure complete or maximum esterification. The maximum of OH groups in cellulose being 4, the reagents were taken in the proportion C₆H₁₀O₅: 4 [7 NaOH: 5 BzCl]. The yield of crude product, after purifying as far as possible from the excess of benzoic acid, was 240 p.ct. [calculated for dibenzoate 227 p.ct.]. On further investigating the crude product by treatment with solvents, it was found to have still retained benzoic acid. There was also present a proportion of only partially attacked cellulose (monobenzoate). The soluble benzoate amounted to 90 p.ct. of the product. It may be generally concluded that the dibenzoate represents the normal maximum but that with the hydrated and partly hydrolysed cellulose molecule, as obtained by regeneration from the sulphocarbonate, other OH groups may react, but they are only a fractional proportion in relation to the unit group C₆H₁₀O₅. In this respect again there is a close parallelism between the sulphocarbonate and benzoyl-ester reactions.

The dibenzoate, even when prepared from the fibrous celluloses, is devoid of structure, and its presence in admixture with the fibrous monobenzoate is at once recognised as it constitutes a structureless incrustation. Under the microscope its presence in however minute proportion is readily observed. As stated it is soluble in certain of the ordinary solvents of the cellulose esters, e.g. chloroform, acetic acid, nitrobenzene, pyridine, and phenol. It is not soluble in ether or alcohol.

Hygroscopic moisture of benzoates.—The crude monobenzoate retains 5.0-5.5 p.ct. moisture in the air-dry condition. After removal of the residual cellulose this is reduced to 3.3 p.ct. under ordinary atmospheric conditions. The purified dibenzoates retain 1.6 p.ct. under similar conditions.

Analysis of benzoates.—On saponification of these esters with alcoholic sodium hydrate, anomalous results are obtained. The acid numbers, determined by titration in the usual way, are 10-20 p.ct. in excess of the theoretical, the difference increasing with the time of boiling. Similarly the residual cellulose shows a deficiency of 5-9 p.ct.

It is by no means improbable that in the original ester reaction there is a constitutional change in the cellulose molecule causing it to break down in part under the hydrolysing treatment with formation of acid products. This point is under investigation. Normal results as regards acid numbers, on the other hand, are obtained by saponification with sodium ethylate in the cold, the product being digested with the half-saturated solution for 12 hours in a closed flask.

The following results with specimens of mono- and dibenzoate, purified, as far as possible, may be cited:

The divergence of the numbers, especially for the dibenzoate, in the case of the hydrogen, and yield of cellulose on hydrolysis are noteworthy. They confirm the probability of the occurrence of secondary changes in the ester reactions.

Action of nitrating acid upon the benzoates.—From the benzoates above described, mixed nitro-nitric esters are obtained by the action of the mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The residual OH groups of the cellulose are esterified and substitution by an NO₂ group takes place in the aromatic residue, giving a mixed nitric nitrobenzoic ester. The analysis of the products points to the entrance of 1 NO₂ group in the benzoyl residue in either case; in the cellulose residue 1 OH readily reacts. Higher degrees of nitration are attained by the process of solution in concentrated nitric acid and precipitation by pouring into sulphuric acid. In describing these mixed esters we shall find it necessary to adopt the C₁₂ unit formula.

In analysing these products we have employed the Dumas method for total nitrogen. For the O.NO₂ groups we have found the nitrometer and the Schloesing methods to give concordant results. For the NO₂ groups it was thought that Limpricht's method, based upon reduction with stannous chloride in acid solution (HCl), would be available. The quantitative results, however, were only approximate, owing to the difficulty of confining the reduction to the NO₂ groups of the nitrobenzoyl residue. By reduction with ammonium sulphide the O.NO₂ groups were entirely removed as in the case of the cellulose nitrates; the NO₂ was reduced to NH₂ and there resulted a cellulose amidobenzoate, which was diazotised and combined with amines and phenols to form yellow and red colouring matters, the reacting residue remaining more or less firmly combined with the cellulose.

Cellulose dinitrate-dinitrobenzoate, and cellulose trinitrate-dinitrobenzoate.—On treating the fibrous benzoate—which is a dibenzoate on the C₁₂ basis—with the acid mixture under the usual conditions, a yellowish product is obtained, with a yield of 140-142 p.ct. The nitrobenzoate is insoluble in ether alcohol, but is soluble in acetone, acetic acid, and nitrobenzene. In purifying the product the former solvent is used to remove any cellulose nitrates. To obtain the maximum combination with nitroxy-groups, the product was dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and the solution poured into sulphuric acid.

The following analytical results were obtained (a) for the product obtained directly from the fibrous benzoate and purified as indicated, (b) for the product from the further treatment of (a) as described:

With the two benzoyl groups converted into nitro-benzoyl in each product, the limit of the ester reaction with the cellulose residue is reached at the third OH group.

The nitrogen in the amidobenzoate resulting from the reduction with ammonium sulphide was 4.5 p.ct.—as against 5.0 p.ct. calculated. The moisture retained by the fibrous nitrate—nitrobenzoate—in the air-dry state was found to be 1.97 p.ct.

The product from the structureless dibenzoate or tetrabenzoate on the C₁₂ formula, was prepared and analysed with the following results:

The results were confirmed by the yield of product, viz. 131 p.ct. as against the calculated 136 p.ct. They afford further evidence of the generally low limit of esterification of the cellulose molecule. From the formation of a 'normal' tetracetate—i.e. octacetate of the C₁₂ unit—we conclude that 4/5 of the oxygen atoms are hydroxyl oxygen. Of the 8 OH groups five only react in the mixed esters described above, and six only in the case of the simple nitric esters. The ester reactions are probably not simple, but accompanied by secondary reactions within the cellulose molecule.

(p. 34) Cellulose Acetates.—In the first edition (p. 35) we have committed ourselves to the statement that 'on boiling cotton with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate no reaction occurs.' This is erroneous. The error arises, however, from the somewhat vague statements of Schutzenberger's researches which are current in the text-books [e.g. Beilstein, 1 ed. p. 586] together with the statement that reaction only occurs at elevated temperatures (180°). As a matter of fact, reaction takes place at the boiling temperature of the anhydride. We have obtained the following results with bleached cotton:

This product is formed without apparent structural alteration of the fibre. It is entirely insoluble in all the ordinary solvents of the higher acetates. Moreover, it entirely resists the actions of the special solvents of cellulose—e.g. zinc chloride and cuprammonium. The compound is in other respects equally stable and inert. The hygroscopic moisture under ordinary atmospheric conditions is 3.2 p.ct.

Tetracetate.—This product is now made on the manufacturing scale: it has yet to establish its industrial value.

NITRIRUNG VON KOHLENHYDRATEN.

W. Will und P. Lenze (Berl. Ber., 1898, 68).

NITRATES OF CARBOHYDRATES.

(p. 38) The authors have studied the nitric esters of a typical series of the now well-defined carbohydrates—pentoses, hexoses, both aldoses and ketoses—bioses and trioses, the nitrates being prepared under conditions designed to produce the highest degree of esterification. Starch, wood, gum, and cellulose were also included in the investigations. The products were analysed and their physical properties determined. They were more especially investigated in regard to temperatures of decomposition, which were found to lie considerably lower than that of the cellulose nitrates. They also show marked and variable instability at 50° C. A main purpose of the inquiry was to throw light upon a probable cause of the instability of the cellulose nitrates, viz. the presence of nitrates of hydrolysed products or carbohydrates of lower molecular weight.

The most important results are these:

Monoses.—The aldoses are fully esterified, in the pentoses 4 OH, in the hexoses 5 OH groups reacting. The pentose nitrates are comparatively stable at 50°; the hexose nitrates on the other hand are extremely unstable, showing a loss of weight of 30-40 p.ct. when kept 24 hours at this temperature.

Xylose is differentiated by tending to pass into an anhydride form (C₅H₁₀O₅-H₂O) under this esterification. When treated in fact with the mixed acids, instead of by the process usually adopted by the authors of solution in nitric acid and subsequent addition of the sulphuric acid, it is converted into the dinitrate C₅H₆O₂.(NO₃)₂.

Ketoses (C₆).—These are sharply differentiated from the corresponding aldoses by giving trinitrates C₆H₇O₂(NO₃)₃ instead of pentanitrates, the remaining OH groups probably undergoing internal condensation. The products are, moreover, extremely stable. It is also noteworthy that levulose gave this same product, the trinitrate of the anhydride (levulosan) by both methods of nitration (supra).

The bisaccharides or bioses all give the octonitrates. The degree of instability is variable. Cane-sugar gives a very unstable nitrate. The lactose nitrate is more stable. Thus at 50° it loses only 0.7 p.ct. in weight in eight days; at 75° it loses 1 p.ct. in twenty-four hours, but with a rapid increase to 23 p.ct. in fifty-four hours. The maltose octonitrate melts (with decomposition) at a relatively high temperature, 163°-164°. At 50°-75° it behaves much like the lactose nitrate.

Trisaccharide.—Raffinose yielded the product

C₁₈H₂₁O₅.(NO₃)₁₁.

Starch yields the hexanitrate (C₁₂) by both methods of nitration. The product has a high melting and decomposing point, viz. 184°, and when thoroughly purified is quite stable. It is noted that a yield of 157 p.ct. of this nitrate was obtained, and under identical conditions cellulose yielded 170 p.ct.

Wood gum, from beech wood, gave a tetranitrate (C₁₀ formula) insoluble in all the usual solvents for this group of esters.

The authors point out in conclusion that the conditions of instability and decomposition of the nitrates of the monose-triose series are exactly those noted with the cellulose nitrates as directly prepared and freed from residues of the nitrating acids. They also lay stress upon the superior stability of the nitrates of the anhydrides, especially of the ketoses.

NITRATED CARBOHYDRATES AS FOOD MATERIAL FOR MOULDS.

Thomas Bokorny (Chem. Zeit., 1896, 20, 985-986).

(p. 38) Cellulose trinitrate (nitrocellulose) will serve as a food supply for moulds when suspended in distilled water containing the requisite mineral matter and placed in the dark. The growth is rapid, and a considerable quantity of the vegetable growth accumulates round the masses of cellulose nitrate, but no growth is observed if mineral matter is absent. Cellulose itself cannot act as a food supply, and it seems probable that if glycerol is present cellulose nitrate is no longer made use of.

NITRATION OF CELLULOSE, HYDROCELLULOSE, AND OXYCELLULOSE.

Leo Vignon (Compt. rend., 1898, 126, 1658-1661).

(p. 38) Repeated treatment of cellulose, hydrocellulose, and oxycellulose with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids in large excess, together with successive analyses of the compounds produced, showed that the final product of the reaction corresponded, in each case, with the fixation of 11 NO groups by a molecule containing 24 atoms of carbon. On exposure to air, nitrohydrocellulose becomes yellow and decomposes; nitro-oxycellulose is rather more stable, whilst nitrocellulose is unaffected. The behaviour of these nitro-derivatives with Schiff's reagent, Fehling's solution, and potash show that all three possess aldehydic characters, which are most marked in the case of nitro-oxycellulose. The latter also, when distilled with hydrochloric acid, yields a larger proportion of furfuraldehyde than is obtained from nitrocellulose and nitrohydrocellulose.

CELLULOSE NITRATES-EXPLOSIVES.

(p. 38) The uses of the cellulose nitrates as a basis for explosives are limited by their fibrous character. The conversion of these products into the structureless homogeneous solid or semi-solid form has the effect of controlling their combustion. The use of nitroglycerin as an agent for this purpose gives the curious result of the admixture of two high or blasting explosives to produce a new explosive capable of extended use for military purposes. The leading representatives of this class of propulsive explosives, or 'smokeless powders' are ballistite and cordite, the technology of which will be found fully discussed in special manuals of the subject. Since the contribution of these inventions to the development of cellulose chemistry does not go beyond the broad, general facts above mentioned, we must refer the reader for technical details to the manuals in question.

There are, however, other means of arriving at structureless cellulose nitrates. One of these has been recently disclosed, and as the results involve chemical and technical points of novelty, which are dealt with in a scientific communication, we reproduce the paper in question, viz.:—

A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE CELLULOSE NITRATES.

A. Luck and C. F. Cross (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1900).

The starting-point of these investigations was a study of the nitrates obtained from the structureless cellulose obtained from the sulphocarbonate (viscose). This cellulose in the form of a fine meal was treated under identical conditions with a sample of pure cotton cellulose, viz. digested for 24 hours in an acid mixture containing in 100 parts HNO₃—24 : H₂SO₄—70: H₂O—6: the proportion of acid to cellulose being 60 : 1—. After careful purification the products were analysed with the following results:

Examined by the 'heat test' (at 80°) and the 'stability test' (at 135°) they exhibited the usual instability, and in equal degrees. Nor were the tests affected by exhaustive treatment with ether, benzene, and alcohol. From this it appears that the process of solution as sulphocarbonate and regeneration of the cellulose, though it eliminates certain constituents of an ordinary bleached cellulose, which might be expected to cause instability, has really no effect in this direction. It also appears that instability may be due to by-products of the esterification process derived from the cellulose itself.

The investigation was then extended to liquids having a direct solvent action on these higher nitrates, more especially acetone. It was necessary, however, to avoid this solvent action proper, and having observed that dilution with water in increasing proportions produced a graduated succession of physical changes in the fibrous ester, we carried out a series of treatments with such diluted acetones. Quantities of the sample (A), purified as described, but still unstable, were treated each with five successive changes of the particular liquid, afterwards carefully freed from the acetone and dried at 40°C. The products, which were found to be more or less disintegrated, were then tested by the ordinary heat test, stability test, and explosion test, with the results shown in the table on next page.

In this series of trials the sample 'A' was used in the condition of pulp, viz. as reduced by the process of wet-beating in a Hollander. A similar series was carried out with the guncotton in the condition in which it was directly obtained from the ester reaction. The results were similar to above, fully confirming the progressive character of the stabilisation with increasing proportions of acetone. These results prove that washing with the diluted acetone not only rendered the nitrate perfectly stable, but that the product was more stable than that obtained by the ordinary process of purification, viz. long-continued boiling and washing in water. We shall revert to this point after briefly dealing with the associated phenomenon of structural disintegration. This begins to be well marked when the proportion of acetone exceeds 80 p.ct. The optimum effect is obtained with mixtures of 90 to 93 acetone and 10 to 7 water (by volume). In a slightly diluted acetone of such composition, the guncotton is instantly attacked, the action being quite different from the gelatinisation which precedes solution in the undiluted solvent. The fibrous character disappears, and the product assumes the form of a free, bulky, still opaque mass, which rapidly sinks to the bottom of the containing vessel. The disintegration of the bulk of the nitrate is associated with

a certain solvent action, and on adding an equal bulk of water, the dissolved nitrate for the most part is precipitated, at the same time that the undissolved but disintegrated and swollen product undergoes further changes in the direction of increase of hardness and density. The product being now collected on a filter, freed from acetone by washing with water and dried, is a hard and dense powder the fineness of which varies according to the attendant conditions of treatment. With the main product in certain cases there is found associated a small proportion of nitrate retaining a fibrous character, which may be separated by means of a fine sieve. On examining such a residue, we found it to contain only 5.6 p.ct. N, and as it was insoluble in strong acetone, it may be regarded as a low nitrate or a mixture of such with unaltered cellulose. Confirming this we found that the product passing through the sieve showed an increase of nitrogen to 13.43 p.ct. from the 13.31 p.ct. in the original. Tested by the heat test (50 minutes) and stability test (no fumes after 100 minutes), we found the products to have the characteristics previously noticed.

It is clear, therefore, that this specifically regulated action of acetone produces the effects (a) of disintegration, and (b) stabilisation. It remains to determine whether the latter effect was due, as might be supposed, to the actual elimination of a compound or group of compounds present in the original nitrate, and to be regarded as the effective cause of instability. It is to be noted first that as a result of the treatment with the diluted acetone and further dilution after the specific action is completed, collecting the disintegrated product on a filter and washing with water, the loss of weight sustained amounts to 3 to 4 p.ct. This loss is due, therefore, to products remaining dissolved in the filtrate—that is to say, in the much diluted acetone. These filtrates are in fact opalescent from the presence of a portion of nitrate in a colloidal (hydrated) form. On distilling off the acetone, a precipitation is determined. The precipitates are nitrates of variable composition, analysis showing from 9 to 12 p.ct. of nitric nitrogen. The filtrate from these precipitates containing only fractional residues of acetone still shows opalescence. On long-continued boiling a further precipitation is determined, the filtrates from which are clear. It was in this final clear filtrate that the product assumed to cause the instability of the original nitrate would be present. The quantity, however, is relatively so small that we have only been able to obtain and examine it as residue from evaporation to dryness. An exhaustive qualitative examination established a number of negative characteristics, with the conclusion that the products were not direct derivatives of carbohydrates nor aromatic compounds. On the other hand the following positive points resulted. Although the original diluted acetone extract was neutral to test papers, yet the residue was acid in character. It contained combined nitric groups, fused below 200° giving off acid vapours, and afterwards burning with a smoky flame. On adding lead acetate to the original clear solution, a well-marked precipitation was determined. The lead compounds thus isolated are characteristic. They have been obtained in various ways and analysed. The composition varies with the character of the solution in which the lead compound is formed. Thus in the opalescent or milky solutions in which a proportion of cellulose nitrate is held in solution or semi-solution by the acetone still present, the lead acetate causes a dense coagulation. The precipitates dried and analysed showed 16-20 p.ct. PbO and 11-9 p.ct. N. It is clear that the cellulose nitrates are associated in these precipitates with the lead salts of the acid compounds in question. When the latter are obtained from clear solutions, i.e. in absence of cellulose nitrates, they contain 60-63 p.ct. PbO and 3.5 p.ct. N (obtained as NO).

In further confirmation of the conclusion from these results, viz. that the nitrocelluloses with no tendency to combine with PbO are associated with acid products or by-products of the ester reaction combining with the oxide, the lead reagent was allowed to react in the presence of 90 p.ct. acetone. Water was added, the disintegrated mass collected, washed with dilute acetic acid, and finally with water. Various estimations of the PbO fixed in this way have given numbers varying from 2 to 2.5 p.ct. Such products are perfectly stable. This particular effect of stabilisation appears, therefore, to depend upon the combination of certain acid products present in ordinary nitrocelluloses with metallic oxides. In order to further verify this conclusion, standard specimens of cellulose nitrates have been treated with a large number of metallic salts under varying conditions of action. It has been finally established (1) that the effects in question are more particularly determined by treatment with salts of lead and zinc, and (2) that the simplest method of treatment is that of boiling the cellulose nitrates with dilute aqueous solutions of salts of these metals, preferably the acetates. The following results may be cited, obtained by boiling a purified 'service' guncotton (sample C) with a 1 p.ct. solution of lead acetate and of zinc acetate respectively. After boiling 60 minutes the nitrates were washed free from the soluble metallic salts, dried and tested.

In conclusion we may briefly resume the main points arrived at in these investigations.

Causes of instability of cellulose nitrates.—The results of our experiments so far as to the causes of instability in cellulose nitrates may be summed up as follows:—

(1) Traces of free nitrating acids, which can only occur in the finished products through careless manufacture, will undoubtedly cause instability, indicated strongly by the ordinary heat test at 80°, and to a less extent by the heat test at 134°.

(2) Other compounds exist in more intimate association with the cellulose nitrates causing instability which cannot be removed by exhaustive washing with either hot or cold water, by digestion in cold dilute alkaline solutions such as sodium carbonate, or by extracting with ether, alcohol, benzene, &c.; these compounds, however, are soluble in the solvents of highly nitrated cellulose such as acetone, acetic ether, pyridine, &c., even when these liquids are so diluted with water or other non-solvent liquids to such an extent that they have little or no solvent action upon the cellulose nitrate itself. These solutions containing the bodies causing instability are neutral to test paper, but become acid upon evaporation by heating. (This probably explains the presence of free acid when guncotton is purified by long-continued boiling in water without any neutralising agent being present.)

(3) The bodies causing instability are products or by-products of the original ester reaction, acid bodies containing nitroxy-groups, but otherwise of ill-defined characteristics. They combine with the oxides of zinc or lead, giving insoluble compounds. They are precipitated from their solutions in diluted acetone upon the addition of soluble salts of these metals.

(4) Cellulose nitrates are rendered stable either by eliminating these compounds, or by combining them with the oxides of lead or zinc whilst still in association with cellulose nitrates.

(5) Even the most perfectly purified nitrocellulose will slowly decompose with formation of unstable acid products by boiling for a long time in water. This effect is much more apparent at higher temperatures.

Dense structureless or non-fibrous cellulose nitrates can be industrially prepared (1) by nitrating the amorphous forms of cellulose obtained from its solution as sulphocarbonate (viscose). The cellulose in this condition reacts with the closest similarity to the original fibrous cellulose; the products are similar in composition and properties, including that of instability.

(2) By treating the fibrous cellulose nitrates with liquid solvents of the high nitrate diluted with non-solvent liquids, and more especially water. The optimum effect is a specific disintegration or breaking down of their fibrous structure quite distinct from the gelatinisation which precedes solution in the undiluted solvent, and occurring within narrow limits of variation in the proportion of the diluting and non-solvent liquid—for industrial work the most convenient solution to employ is acetone diluted with about 10 p.ct. of water by volume.

The industrial applications of these results are the basis of English patents 5286 (1898), 18,868 (1898), 18,233 (1898), Luck and Cross (this Journal, 1899, 400, 787).

The structureless guncotton prepared as above described is of quite exceptional character, and entirely distinct from the ordinary fibrous nitrate or the nitrate prepared by precipitation from actual solution in an undiluted solvent.[3] By the process described, the nitrate is obtained at a low cost in the form of a very fine, dense, structureless, white powder of great purity and stability, entirely free from all mechanical impurities. The elimination of these mechanical impurities, and also to a very great extent of coloured compounds contained in the fibrous nitrate, makes the product also useful in the manufacture of celluloids, artificial silk, &c., whilst its very dense form gives it a great advantage over ordinary fibrous guncotton for use in shells and torpedoes, and for the manufacture of gelatinised gunpowders, &c. It can be compressed with ease into hard masses; and experiments are in progress with a view of producing from it, in admixture with 'retaining' ingredients, a military explosive manufactured by means of ordinary black gunpowder machinery and processes.

Manufacture of sporting powder.—The fact that the fibrous structure of ordinary guncotton or other cellulose nitrate can be completely or partially destroyed by treatment with diluted acetone and without attendant solution, constitutes a process of value for the manufacture of sporting powder having a base of cellulose nitrate of any degree of nitration. The following is a description of the hardening process.

'Soft grains' are manufactured from ordinary guncotton or other cellulose nitrate either wholly or in combination with other ingredients, the process employed being the usual one of revolving in a drum in the damp state and sifting out the grains of suitable size after drying. These grains are then treated with diluted acetone, the degree of dilution being fixed according to the hardness and bulk of the finished grain it is desired to produce (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 787). Owing to the wide limits of dilution and corresponding effect, the process allows of the production of either a 'bulk' or a 'condensed' powder.

We prefer to use about five litres of the liquid to each one kilo. of grain operated upon, as this quantity allows of the grains being freely suspended in the liquid upon stirring. The grains are run into the liquid, which is then preferably heated to the boiling-point for a few minutes whilst the whole is gently stirred. Under this treatment the grains assume a more or less rounded gelatinous condition according to the strength of the liquid. There is, however, no solution of the guncotton and practically no tendency of the grains to cohere. Each grain, however, is acted upon throughout and perfectly equally. After a few minutes' treatment, water is gradually added, when the grains rapidly harden. They are then freed from acetone and certain impurities by washing with water, heating, and drying. The process is of course carried out in a vessel provided with any means for gentle stirring and heating, and with an outlet for carrying off the volatilised solvent which is entirely recovered by condensation, the grains parting with the acetone with ease.

Stabilising cellulose nitrates.—The process is of especial value in rendering stable and inert the traces of unstable compounds which always remain in cellulose nitrate after the ordinary boiling and washing process. It is of greatest value in the manufacture of collodion cotton used for the preparation of gelatinous blasting explosives and all explosives composed of nitroglycerin and cellulose nitrates. Such mixtures seem peculiarly liable to decomposition if the cellulose nitrate is not of exceptional stability (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 787).

EMPLOI DE LA CELLULOSE POUR LA FABRICATION DE FILS BRILLANTS IMITANT LA SOIE.

E. Bronnert (1) (Rev. Mat. Col., 1900, September, 267).

V. USE OF CELLULOSE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IMITATIONS OF SILK (LUSTRA-CELLULOSE).

(p. 45) Introduction.—The problem of spinning a continuous thread of cellulose has received in later years several solutions. Mechanically all resolve themselves into the preparation of a structureless filtered solution of cellulose or a cellulose derivative, and forcing through capillary orifices into some medium which either absorbs or decomposes the solvent. The author notes here that the fineness and to a great extent the softness of the product depends upon the dimensions of the capillary orifice and concentration of the solution. The technical idea involved in the spinning of artificial fibres is an old one. RÉaumur (2) forecast its possibility, Audemars of Lausanne took a patent as early as 1855 (3) for transforming nitrocellulose into fine filaments which he called 'artificial silk.' The idea took practical shape only when it came to be used in connection with filaments for incandescent lamps. In this connection we may mention the names of the patentees:—Swinburne (4), Crookes, Weston (5), Swan (6), and Wynne and Powell (7). These inventors prepared the way for Chardonnet's work, which has been followed since 1888 with continually increasing success.

At this date the lustra-celluloses known may be divided into four classes.

1. 'Artificial silks' obtained from the nitrocelluloses.

2. 'Lustra-cellulose' made from the solution of cellulose in cuprammonium.

3. 'Lustra-cellulose' prepared from the solution of cellulose in chloride of zinc.

4. 'Viscose silks,' by the decomposition of sulphocarbonate of cellulose (Cross and Bevan).

Group 1. The early history of the Chardonnet process is discussed and some incidental causes of the earlier failures are dealt with. The process having been described in detail in so many publications the reader is referred to these for details. [See Bibliography, (1) and (2), (3) and (4).] The denitrating treatment was introduced in the period 1888-90 and of course altogether changed the prospects of the industry; not only does it remove the high inflammability, but adds considerably to softness, lustre, and general textile quality. In Table I will be found some important constants for the nitrocellulose fibre; also the fibre after denitration and the comparative constants for natural silk.

Table 1.

In regard to the manufacture a number of very serious difficulties have been surmounted. First, instead of drying the nitrated cellulose, which often led to fires, &c., it was found better to take it moist from the centrifugal machine, in which condition it is dissolved (5). It was next found that with the concentrated collodion the thread could be spun direct into the air, and the use of water as a precipitant was thus avoided.

With regard to denitration which is both a delicate and disagreeable operation: none of the agents recommended to substitute the sulphydrates have proved available. Of these the author mentions ferrous chloride (6), ferrous chloride in alcohol (7), formaldehyde (8), sulphocarbonates. The different sulphydrates (9) have very different effects. The calcium compound tends to harden and weaken the thread. The ammonia compound requires great care and is costly. The magnesium compound works rapidly and gives the strongest thread. Investigations have established the following point. In practice it is not necessary to combine the saponification of cellulose ester with complete reduction of the nitric acid split off. The latter requires eight molecules of hydrogen sulphide per one molecule tetranitrocellulose, but with precautions four molecules suffice. It is well known that the denitration is nearly complete, traces only of nitric groups surviving. Their reactions with diphenylamine allow a certain identification of artificial silks of this class. Various other inventors, e.g. Du Vivier (10), Cadoret (11), Lehner (12), have attempted the addition of other substances to modify the thread. These have all failed. Lehner, who persisted in his investigations, and with success, only attained this success, however, by leaving out all such extraneous matters. Lehner works with 10 p.ct. solutions; Chardonnet has continually aimed at higher concentration up to 20 p.ct. Lehner has been able very much to reduce his pressures of ejection in consequence; Chardonnet has had to increase up to pressures of 60 k. per cm. and higher. The latter involves very costly distributing apparatus. Lehner made next considerable advance by the discovery of the fact that the addition of sulphuric acid to the collodion caused increase of fluidity (13), which Lehner attributes to molecular change. Chardonnet found similar results from the addition of aldehyde and other reagents (14), but not such as to be employed for the more concentrated collodions. The author next refers to his discoveries (15) that alcoholic solutions of a number of substances, organic and inorganic, freely dissolve the lower cellulose nitrates. The most satisfactory of these substances is chloride of calcium (16). It is noted that acetate of ammonia causes rapid changes in the solution, which appear to be due to a species of hydrolysis. The result is sufficiently remarkable to call for further investigation. The chloride of calcium, it is thought possible, produces a direct combination of the alcohol with a reactive group of the nitrocellulose. The fluidity of this solution using one mol. CaCl₂ per 1 mol. tetranitrate (17) reaches a maximum in half an hour's heating at 60°-70°C. The fluidity is increased by starting from a cotton which has been previously mercerised. After nitration there is no objection to a chlorine bleach. Chardonnet has found on the other hand that in bleaching before nitration there is a loss of spinning quality in the collodion. The author considers that the new collodion can be used entirely in place of the ordinary ether-alcohol collodion. With regard to the properties of the denitrated products they fix all basic colours without mordant and may be regarded as oxycellulose therefore. The density of the thread is from 1.5 to 1.55. The thread of 100 deniers shows a mean breaking strain of 120 grammes with an elasticity of 8-12 p.ct. The cardinal defect of these fibres is their property of combination with water. Many attempts have been made to confer water-resistance (18), but without success. Strehlenert has proposed the addition of formaldehyde (19), but this is without result (20). In reference to these effects of hydration, the author has made observations on cotton thread, of which the following table represents the numerical results:

The author considers that other patents which have been taken for spinning nitrocellulose are of little practical account (21) and (22). The same conclusion also applies to the process of Langhans, who proposes to spin solutions of cellulose in sulphuric acid (23) (24) and mixtures of sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid.

Group 2. Lustra-cellulose.—Thread prepared by spinning solutions of cellulose in cuprammonium.

This product is made by the Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken, Aachen, according to a series of patents under the names of H. Pauly, M. Fremery and Urban, Consortium mulhousien pour la fabrication de fils brillants, E. Bronnert, and E. Bronnert and Fremery and Urban (1). The first patent in this direction was taken by Despeissis in 1890 (2). It appears this inventor died shortly after taking the patent (3) The matter was later developed by Pauly (4) especially in overcoming the difficulty of preparing a solution of sufficient concentration. (It is to be noted that Pauly's patents rest upon a very slender foundation, being anticipated in every essential detail by the previous patent of Despeissis.) For this very great care is required, especially, first, the condition of low temperature, and, secondly, a regulated proportion of copper and ammonia to cellulose. The solution takes place more rapidly if the cellulose has been previously oxidised. Such cellulose gives an 8 p.ct. solution, and the thread obtained has the character of an oxycellulose, specially seen in its dyeing properties. The best results are obtained, it appears, by the preliminary mercerising treatment and placing the alkali cellulose in contact with copper and ammonia. (All reagents employed in molecular proportions.) The author notes that the so-called hydrocellulose (Girard) (5) is almost insoluble in cuprammonium, as is starch. It is rendered soluble by alkali treatment.

Group 3. Lustra-cellulose prepared by spinning a solution of cellulose in concentrated chloride of zinc.

This solution has been known for a long time and used for making filaments for incandescent lamps. The cellulose threads, however, have very little tenacity. This is no doubt due to the conditions necessary for forming the solution, the prolonged digestion causing powerful hydrolysis (1). Neither the process of Wynne and Powell (2) nor that of Dreaper and Tompkins (3), who have endeavoured to bring the matter to a practical issue, are calculated to produce a thread taking a place as a textile. The author has described in his American patent (4) a method of effecting the solution in the cold, viz. again by first mercerising the cellulose and washing away the caustic soda. This product dissolves in the cold and the solution remains unaltered if kept at low temperature. Experiments are being continued with these modifications of the process, and the author anticipates successful results. The modifications having the effect of maintaining the high molecular weight of the cellulose, it would appear that these investigations confirm the theory of Cross and Bevan that the tenacity of a film or thread of structureless regenerated cellulose is directly proportional to the molecular weight of the cellulose, i.e. to its degree of molecular aggregation (5).

Group 4. 'Viscose' silks obtained by spinning solutions of xanthate of cellulose.

In 1892, Cross and Bevan patented the preparation of a new and curious compound of cellulose, the thiocarbonate (1) (2) (3). Great hopes were based upon this product at the time of its discovery. It was expected to yield a considerable industrial and financial profit and also to contribute to the scientific study of cellulose. The later patents of C. H. Stearn (4) describe the application of viscose to the spinning of artificial silk. The viscose is projected into solutions of chloride of ammonium and washed in a succession of saline solutions to remove the residual sulphur impurities. The author remarks that though it has a certain interest to have succeeded in making a thread from this compound and thus adding another to the processes existing for this purpose, he is not of opinion that it shows any advance on the lustra-cellulose (2) and (3). He also considers that the bisulphide of carbon, which must be regarded as a noxious compound, is a serious bar to the industrial use of the process, and for economic work he considers that the regeneration of ammonia from the precipitating liquors is necessary and would be as objectionable as the denitration baths in the collodion process. The final product not being on the market he does not pronounce a finally unfavourable opinion.

The author and the Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken after long investigation have decided to make nothing but the lustra-cellulose (2) and (3). A new factory at Niedermorschweiler, near Mulhouse, is projected for this last production.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction

(1) Bull. de la Soc. industr. de Mulhouse, 1900.

(2) RÉaumur, MÉmoire pour servir À l'histoire des insectes, 1874, 1, p. 154.

(3) English Pat. No. 283, Feb. 6, 1855.

(4) Swinburne, Electrician, 18, 28, 1887, p. 256.

(5) Weston (Swinburne), Electrician, 18, 1887, p. 287. Eng. Pat. No. 22866, Sept. 12, 1882.

(6) German Pat. No. 3029. English Pat. No. 161780, April 28, 1884 (Swan).

(7) Wynne-Powell, English Pat. No. 16805, Dec. 22, 1884.

Group I

(1) German Pat No. 38368, Dec. 20, 1885. German Pat. No. 46125, March 4, 1888. German Pat. No. 56331, Feb. 6, 1890. German Pat. No. 81599, Oct. 11, 1893. German Pat. No. 56655, April 23, 1890. French Pat. No. 231230, June 30, 1893.

(2) Industrie textile, 1899, 1892. Wyss-Noef, Zeitschrift fÜr angewandte Chemie, 1899, 30, 33. La Nature, Jan. 1, 1898, No. 1283. Revue gÉnÉrale des sciences, June 30, 1898.

(3) German Pat. No. 46125, March 4, 1888. German Pat. No. 56655, April 23, 1890.

(4) Swan, English Pat. 161780, June 28, 1884. See also BÉchamp, Dict. de Chimie de Wurtz.

(5) German Pat. No. 81599, Oct 11, 1893.

(6) BÉchamp, art. Cellulose, Dict. de Chimie de Wurtz, p. 781.

(7) Chardonnet, addit. March 3, 1897, to the French Pat. 231230, May 30, 1893.

(8) Knofler, French Pat. 247855, June 1, 1895. German Pat. 88556, March 28, 1894.

(9) BÉchamp, art. Cellulose, Dict. de Chimie de Wurtz. Blondeau, Ann. Chim. et Phys. (3), 1863, 68, p. 462.

(10) Revue industrielle, 1890, p. 194. German Pat. 52977, March 7, 1889.

(11) French Pat. 256854, June 2, 1896.

(12) German Pat. 55949, Nov. 9, 1889. German Pat. 58508, Sept. 16, 1890. German Pat. 82555, Nov. 15, 1894.

(13) German Pat. 58508, Sept. 16, 1900.

(14) French Pat. 231230, June 30, 1893.

(15) German Pat. 93009, Nov. 19, 1895. French Pat. 254703, March 12, 1896. English Pat. 6858, March 28, 1896.

(16) American Pat. 573132, Dec. 15, 1896.

(17) This proportion is the most advantageous, and furnishes the best liquid collodions that can be spun.

(18) French Pat. 259422, Sept. 3, 1896.

(19) English Pat. 22540, 1896.

(20) Application for German Pat. not granted, 4933 IV. 296, Mar. 16, 1897.

(21) German Pat. 96208, Feb. 10, 1897. Addit. Pat. 101844 and 102573, Dec. 10, 1897.

(22) Oberle et Newbold, French Pat. 25828, July 22, 1896. Granquist, Engl. applic. 2379, Nov. 28, 1899.

(23) German Pat. 72572, June 17, 1891.

(24) Voy. Stern, Ber., 28, ch. 462.

Group II

(1) German Pat. 98642, Dec. 1, 1897 (Pauly). French Pat. 286692, March 10, 1899, and addition of October 14, 1899 (Fremery and Urban). French Pat. 286726, March 11, 1899, and addition of December 4, 1899. German Pat. 111313, March 16, 1899 (Fremery and Urban). English Pat. 18884, Sept. 19, 1899 (Bronnert). English Pat. 13331, June 27, 1899 (Consort. mulhousien).

(2) French Pat. 203741, Feb. 12, 1890.

(3) The actual lapse of this patent is due to the death of Despeissis shortly after it was taken.

(4) Without questioning the good faith of Pauly, it is nevertheless a fact that the original patent remains as a document, and therefore that the value of the Pauly patents is very questionable.

(5) Girard, Ann. Chim. et Phys, 1881 (5), 24, p. 337-384.

Group III

(1) Cross and Bevan, Cellulose, 1895, p. 8.

(2) English Pat. 16805, Dec. 22, 1884.

(3) English Pat. 17901, July 30, 1897.

(4) Bronnert, American Pat. 646799, April 3, 1900.

(5) Cross and Bevan, Cellulose, 1895, p. 12.

Group IV

(1) English Pat. 8700, 1892. German Pat. 70999, Jan. 13, 1893.

(2) English Pat. 4713, 1896. German Pat. 92590, Nov. 21, 1896.

(3) Comptes rendus (loc. cit.). Berichte, c. 9, 65a.

(4) English Pat. 1020, 1898. German Pat. 108511, Oct. 18, 1898.

Artificial Silk—Lustra-cellulose.

C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1896, 317).

The object of this paper is mainly to correct current statements as to the artificial or 'cellulose silks' being explosive or highly inflammable (ibid., 1895, 720). A specimen of the 'Lehner' silk was found to retain only 0.19 p.ct. total nitrogen, showing that the denitration is sufficiently complete to dispose of any suggestion of high inflammability.

The product yielded traces only of furfural; on boiling with a 1 p.ct. solution of sodium hydrate, the loss of weight was 9.14 p.ct.; but the solution had no reducing action on Fehling's solution. The product in denitration had therefore reverted completely to a cellulose (hydrate), no oxy-derivative being present.

The authors enter a protest against the term 'artificial silk' as applied to these products, and suggest 'lustra-cellulose.'

DIE KÜNSTLICHE SEIDE-IHRE HERSTELLUNG, EIGENSCHAFTEN UND VERWENDUNG.

Carl SÜvern, Berlin, 1900, J. Springer.

ARTIFICIAL SILK—ITS PRODUCTION, PROPERTIES, AND APPLICATIONS.

This work of some 130 pages is an important monograph on the subject of the preparation of artificial cellulose threads—so far as the technical elements of the problems involved are discussed and disclosed in the patent literature. The first section, in fact, consists almost exclusively of the several patent specifications in chronological order and ranged under the sub-sections: (a) The Spinning of Nitrocellulose (collodion); (b) The Spinning of other Solutions of Cellulose; (c) The Spinning of Solutions of the Nitrogenous Colloids.

In the second section the author deals with the physical and chemical proportions of the artificial threads.

Chardonnet 'silk' is stated to have a mean diameter of 35µ, but with considerable variations from the mean in the individual fibres; equally wide variations in form are observed in cross-section. The general form is elliptical, but the surface is marked by deep striÆ, and the cross-section is therefore of irregular outline. This is due to irregular conditions of evaporation of the solvents, the thread being 'spun' into the air from cylindrical orifices of regulated dimensions. Chardonnet states that when the collodion is spun into alcohol the resultant thread is a perfect cylinder (Compt. rend. 1889, 108, 962). The strength of the fibre is variously stated at from 50-80 p.ct. that of 'boiled off' China tram; the true elasticity is 4-5 p.ct., the elongation under the breaking strain 15-17 p.ct. The sp.gr. is 1.49, i.e. 3-5 p.ct. in excess of boiled off silk.

Lehner 'silk' exhibits the closest similarity to the Chardonnet product. In cross-section it is seen to be more regular in outline, and a round, pseudo-tubular form prevails, due to the conditions of shrinkage and collapse of the fibre in parting with the solvents, and in then dehydrating. The constants for 'breaking strain,' both in the original and moistened condition, for elasticity, &c., are closely approximate to those for the Chardonnet product.

Pauly 'silk'.—The form of the ultimate fibres is much more regular and the contour of the cross-section is smooth. The product shows more resistance to moisture and to alkaline solutions.

Viscose 'silk' is referred to in terms of a communication appearing in 'Papier-Zeitung,' 1898, 2416.

Action of Reagents upon Natural and Artificial Silks.

1. Potassium hydrate in solution of maximum concentration dissolves the silks proper, (a) China silk on slight warming, (b) Tussah silk on boiling. The cellulose 'silks' show swelling with discolouration, but the fibrous character is not destroyed even on boiling.

2. Potassium hydrate 40 p.ct. China silk dissolves completely at 65°-85°; Tussah silk swells considerably at 75° and dissolves at 100°-120°. The cellulose 'silks' are attacked with discolouration; at 140° (boiling-point of the solution) there is progressive solvent action, but the action is incomplete. The Pauly product is most resistant.

3. Zinc chloride, 40 p.ct. solution. Both the natural silks and lustra-celluloses are attacked at 100°, and on raising the temperature the further actions are as follows: China silk is completely dissolved at 110-120°; Tussah silk at 130-135°; the collodion products at 140-145°; the Pauly product was again most resistant, dissolving at 180°.

4. Alkaline cupric oxide (glycerin) solution was prepared by dissolving 10 grs. of the sulphate in 100 c.c. water, adding 5 grs. glycerin and 10 c.c. of 40 p.ct. KOH. In this solution the China silk dissolved at the ordinary temperature; Tussah silk and the lustra-celluloses were not appreciably affected.

5. Cuprammonium solution was prepared by dissolving the precipitated cupric hydrate in 24 p.ct. ammonia. In this reagent also the China silk dissolved, and the Tussah silk as well as the lustra-celluloses underwent no appreciable change.

6. An ammoniacal solution of nickel oxide was prepared by dissolving the precipitated hydrated oxide in concentrated ammonia. The China silk was dissolved by this reagent; Tussah silk and the lustra-celluloses entirely resisted its action.

7. Fehling's solution is a solvent of the natural silks, but is without action on the lustra-celluloses.

8. Chromic acid—20 p.ct. CrO₃—solution dissolves both the natural silks and the lustra-celluloses at the boiling temperature of the solution.

9. Millon's reagent, at the boiling solution, colours the natural silks violet: the lustra-celluloses give no reaction.

10. Concentrated nitric acid attacks the natural silks powerfully in the cold; the lustra-celluloses dissolve on heating.

11. Iodine solution (I in KI) colours the China silk a deep brown, Tussah a pale brown; the celluloses from collodion are coloured at first brown, then blue. The Pauly product, on the other hand, does not react.

12. Diphenylamine sulphate.—A solution of the base in concentrated sulphuric acid colours the natural silks a brown; the collodion 'silks' give a strong blue reaction due to the presence of residual nitro-groups. The Pauly product is not affected.

13. Brucin sulphate in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid colours the natural silks only slightly (brown); the collodion 'silks' give a strong red colouration. The Pauly product again is without reaction.

14. Water.—The natural silks do not soften in the mouth as do the lustra-celluloses.

15. Water of condition was determined by drying at 100°; the following percentages resulted (a). The percentages of water (b) taken up from the atmosphere after forty-three hours' exposure were:

16. Behaviour on heating at 200°.—After two hours' heating at this temperature the following changes were noted:

17. The losses of weight accompanying these changes and calculated per 100 parts of fibre dried at 100° were:

18. Inorganic constituents.—Determinations of the total ash gave for the first five of the above, numbers varying from 1.0 to 1.7 p.ct. The only noteworthy point in the comparison was the exceptionally small ash of the Pauly product, viz. 0.096 p.ct.

19. Total nitrogen.—The natural silks contain the 16-17 p.ct. N characteristic of the proteids. The lustra-celluloses contain 0.05-0.15 p.ct. N which in those spun from collodion is present in the form of nitric groups.

The points of chemical differentiation which are established by the above scheme of comparative investigation are summed up in tabular form.

Methods of dyeing.—The lustra-celluloses are briefly discussed. The specific relationship of these forms of cellulose to the colouring matters are in the main those of cotton, but they manifest in the dye-bath the somewhat intensified attraction which characterises mercerised cotton, or more generally the cellulose hydrates.

Industrial applications of the lustra-celluloses are briefly noticed in the concluding section of the book.