THE STOICSpages 1-52

I. Why the systems of Plato and Aristotle failed to secure a hold on contemporary thought, 1—Fate of the schools which they founded, 2—Revival of earlier philosophies and especially of naturalism, 3—Antisthenes and the Cynics, 4—Restoration of naturalism to its former dignity, 6.

II. Zeno and Crates, 7—Establishment of the Stoic school, 8—Cleanthes and Chrysippus, 9—Encyclopaedic character of the Stoic teaching, 9—The great place which it gave to physical science, 10—Heracleitean reaction against the dualism of Aristotle, 11—Determinism and materialism of the Stoics, 12—Their concessions to the popular religion, 14.

III. The Stoic theory of cognition purely empirical, 15—Development of formal logic, 16—New importance attributed to judgment as distinguished from conception, 16—The idea of law, 17—Consistency as the principle of the Stoic ethics, 18—Meaning of the precept, Follow Nature, 19—Distinction between pleasure and self-interest as moral standards, 20—Absolute sufficiency of virtue for happiness, 21—The Stoics wrong from an individual, right from a social point of view, 22—Theory of the passions, 23—Necessity of volition and freedom of judgment, 24—Difficulties involved in an appeal to purpose in creation, 24.

IV. The Stoic paradoxes follow logically from the absolute distinction between right and wrong, 25—Attempt at a compromise with the ordinary morality by the doctrines (i.) of preference and objection, 26—(ii.) of permissible feeling, 27—(iii.) of progress from folly to wisdom, 27—and (iv.) of imperfect duties, 27—Cicero’s De Officiis, 28—Examples of Stoic casuistry, 29—Justification of suicide, 30.

V. Three great contributions made by the Stoics to ethical speculation, (i.) The inwardness of virtue, including the notion of conscience, 31—Prevalent misconception with regard to the Erinyes, 32—(ii.) The individualisation of duty, 33—Process by which this idea was evolved, 35—Its influence on the Romans of the empire, 36—(iii.) The idea of humanity, 36—Its connexion with the idea of Nature, 37—Utilitarianism of the Stoics, 38.

VI. The philanthropic tendencies of Stoicism partly neutralised by its extreme individualism, 40—Conservatism of Marcus Aurelius, 41—The Stoics at once unpitying and forgiving, 42—Humility produced by their doctrine of universal depravity, 42—It is not in the power of others to injure us, 43—The Stoic satirists and Roman society, 44.

VII. The idea of Nature and the unity of mankind, 44—The dynamism of Heracleitus dissociated from the teleology of Socrates, 46—Standpoint of Marcus Aurelius, 46—Tendency to extricate morality from its external support, 47—Modern attacks on Nature, 48—Evolution as an ethical sanction, 49—The vicious circle of evolutionist ethics, 50—The idea of humanity created and maintained by the idea of a cosmos, 51—The prayer of Cleanthes, 52.

EPICURUS AND LUCRETIUSpages 53-119

I. Stationary character of Epicureanism, 53—Prevalent tendency to exaggerate its scientific value, 55—Opposition or indifference of Epicurus to the science of his time, 57.

II. Life of Epicurus, 58—His philosophy essentially practical, 59—The relation of pleasure to virtue: Aristippus, 60—Pessimism of HÊgÊsias, 61—Hedonism of Plato’s Protagoras, 61—The Epicurean definition of pleasure, 62—Reaction of Plato’s idealism on Epicurus, 63—He accepts the negative definition of pleasure, 64—Inconsistency involved in his admissions, 65.

III. Deduction of the particular virtues: Temperance, 66—Points of contact with Cynicism, 66—Evils bred by excessive frugality, 67—Sexual passion discouraged by Epicureanism, 67—Comparative indulgence shown to pity and grief, 68—Fortitude inculcated by minimising the evils of pain, 69—Justice as a regard for the general interest, 70—The motives for abstaining from aggression purely selfish, 70—Indifference of the Epicureans to political duties, 73—Success of Epicureanism in promoting disinterested friendship, 74.

IV. Motives which led Epicurus to include physics in his teaching, 75—His attacks on supernaturalism directed less against the old Polytheism than against the religious movement whence Catholicism sprang, 76—Justification of the tone taken by Lucretius, 78—Plato and Hildebrand, 78—Concessions made by Epicurus to the religious reaction, 80—His criticism of the Stoic theology, 81.

V. Why Epicurus adopted the atomic theory, 82—Doctrine of infinite combinations, 83—Limited number of chances required by the modern theory of evolution, 84—Objections to which Democritus had laid himself open, 85—They are not satisfactorily met by Epicurus, 85—One naturalistic theory as good as another, 87—except the conclusions of astronomy, which are false, 87.

VI. Materialism and the denial of a future life, 88—Epicurus tries to argue away the dread of death, 89—His enterprise inconsistent with human nature, 90—The belief in future torments is the dread of death under another form, 92—How the prospect of death adds to our enjoyment of life, 93—Its stimulating effect on the energies, 94—The love of life gives meaning and merit to courage, 95.

VII. The Epicurean theory of sensation and cognition, 95—Negative character of the whole system, 98—Theory of human history: the doctrine of progressive civilisation much older than Epicurus, 98—Opposition between humanism and naturalism on this point, 99—Passage from a drama of Euphorion, 99.

VIII. Lucretius: his want of philosophic originality, 100—His alleged improvements on the doctrine of Epicurus examined, 101—His unreserved acceptance of the Epicurean ethics, 103—In what the difference between Lucretius and Epicurus consists, 103—Roman enthusiasm for physical science, 104—Sympathy of Lucretius with early Greek thought, 105—The true heroine of the De Rerum NaturÂ, 105—Exhibition of life in all its forms, 106—Venus as the beginning and end of existence, 106—Elucidation of the atomic theory by vital phenomena, 107—Imperfect apprehension of law: the foedera Naturai and the foedera fati, 108—Assimilation of the great cosmic changes to organic processes, 110—False beliefs considered as necessary products of human nature, 111—and consequently as fit subjects for poetic treatment, 112—High artistic value of the De Rerum NaturÂ, 113—Comparison between Lucretius and Dante, 113.

IX. Merits and defects of Epicurus: his revival of atomism and rejection of supernaturalism, 114—His theory of ethics, 115—His contributions to the science of human nature, 116—His eminence as a professor of the art of happiness, 116—His influence on modern philosophy greatly exaggerated by M. Guyau, 117—Unique combination of circumstances to which Epicureanism owed its origin, 119.

THE SCEPTICS AND ECLECTICS: GREEK PHILOSOPHY IN ROMEpages 120-194

I. Philosophic embassy from Athens to Rome, 120—Lectures of Carneades on Justice versus Expediency, 121—Public and private morality in Rome: position of Cato, 122—His motion for the dismissal of the embassy, 123—Carneades and Plato, 123.

II. Different meanings of the word scepticism, 123—False scepticism as an ally of orthodoxy, 125—Vein of doubt running through Greek mythology, 126—Want of seriousness in Homer’s religion, 127—Incredulous spirit shown by some of his characters, 127—Similar tendency in Aeschylus and Herodotus, 128—Negative and sceptical elements in early Greek thought, 128.

III. Protagoras the true father of philosophical scepticism, 129—The three theses of Gorgias, 130—Sceptical idealism of the Cyrenaic school, 132—Scepticism as an ally of religion with Socrates and Plato, 133—The Parmenides, the Sophist, and the Timaeus, 134—Synthesis of affirmation and negation in metaphysics and in dialectics, 135—Use of scepticism as a moral sanction by the Megarians, 136.

IV. Life and opinions of Pyrrho, 137—Denial of first principles: present aspect of the question, 139—Practical teaching of Pyrrho, 140—Encouragement given to scepticism by the concentration of thought on human interests, 141—Illogical compromise of Epicurus, 143—Parasitic character of the sceptical school, 143.

V. Origin of the New Academy, 144—Character and position of Arcesilaus, 145—The Stoic theory of certainty, 146—Criticism of Arcesilaus: his method of infinitesimal transitions, 147—Systematic development and application of the Academic principle by Carneades, 148—His analysis of experience, 149—His attack on syllogistic and inductive reasoning, 150—His criticism of the Stoic and Epicurean theologies, 151—Sceptical conformity to the established religion, 153—Theory of probable evidence as a guide to action, 154—A priori reasoning of the ancient sceptics, 155—Their resemblance in this respect to modern agnostics, 156—and also in their treatment of ethics, 157—Obedience to Nature inculcated by Carneades, 158.

VI. Return of Greek thought to the Sophistic standpoint, 158—Obstacles to a revival of spiritualism, 159—Platonising eclecticism of the Academy: Philo and Antiochus, 160—Approximation of Stoicism to Aristotle’s teaching, 162—General craving for certainty and stability in philosophy, 163.

VII. Sudden paralysis of the Greek intellect, 165—Probable influence of the new Latin literature, 165—Adaptation of Greek philosophy to Roman requirements, 166—Increased prominence given to the anti-religious side of Epicureanism, 167—Its ethics ill-suited to the Roman character, 168—Growing popularity of Stoicism: Panaetius and Posidonius, 168—It is temporarily checked by the influence of the Academy, 169.

VIII. Academic eclecticism of Cicero, 170—His attempted return to the principles of Socrates, 171—Natural instinct as the common ground of philosophy and untrained experience, 172—Practical agreement of the different ethical systems, 173—The weakness of Cicero’s character favourable to religious sentiment, 173—His theological position, 174—Contrast between Cicero and Socrates, 175.

IX. The ideas of Nature, reason, and utility, 176—Meaning and value which they possessed for a Roman, 177—Cynic tendencies of Roman thought, 178—Influence exercised by the younger Cato in favour of Stoicism, 179—The philosophy of natural law as illustrated in Roman poetry, 180—Stoic elements in the Aeneid, 181—The Roman love of simplification and archaism, 182—Cynicism of Juvenal, 183.

X. Neo-Scepticism as a reaction against Naturalism: AenesidÊmus, 184—Return to the standpoint of Protagoras, 184—Critical analysis of causation and perception, 185—The ten Tropes, 186—Their derivation from the categories of Aristotle, 186—Ethical scepticism of Aenesidemus, 187—The Tropes simplified and extended to reasoning, 188—Their continued invincibility as against all appeals to authority, 189—Association of Scepticism with Empiricism, 189—Sextus Empiricus and Hume on causation, 190.

XI. The philosophy of the dinner-bell and its implications, 191—Subsequent influence of Scepticism on Greek thought, 192—Unshaken confidence of the Neo-Platonists in the power of reason, 193—Their philosophy a genuine return to the standpoint of Plato and Aristotle, 193.

THE RELIGIOUS REVIVALpages 195-265

I. New views respecting the civilisation of the Roman empire, 195—Prejudices formerly entertained by its historians, 196—The literary bias, 197—Evidence of intellectual and moral progress supplied by the study of jurisprudence and epigraphy, 197—The new school of historians, 198—The vitality of polytheism much greater than was formerly supposed, 199—notwithstanding the scepticism of the most distinguished Roman writers, 199—opposed as they were by a large and increasing body of religious belief, 200.

II. Revival of religious authority under Augustus, 200—Feeling of the provincials, 201—Isolated position of Horace, 201—The spread of religious beliefs checked by the political organisation of the old city-state, 202—and encouraged by the Roman conquest, 203—Sceptical tendencies of the city-aristocracies, 204—the higher classes more favourable than the people to free thought down to the time of the French Revolution, 205.

III. Dissociation of wealth from education under the empire, 206—Stupidity and credulity of the centurions, 207—Ever-increasing influence exercised by women, 208—and indirectly by children, 210—Slavery and religion, 211—The social despotism of the empire destructive to intellectual independence, 211—Causes which prevented the formation of a new aristocracy, 213.

IV. Nature-worship as a universal religion, 214—Isis and Serapis, 215—Mithras and the worship of the heavenly bodies, 215—Spread of Judaism in Rome and elsewhere, 216—The Holy Land and the Sabbath, 218—Continued devotion paid to the Olympian deities, 219—Elasticity of Graeco-Roman polytheism, 219—Development of indigenous superstition, 220.

V. Oracular character of the pagan religions, 221—Effect produced by the intellectual movement in Greece, 221—Popular belief remains stationary or becomes retrograde: Deisidaimonia, 222—Faith in omens among the educated classes under Augustus, 223—Conversion of an infidel by the oracle of Mopsus, 224—Alexander of Abonuteichus and his dupes, 224.

VI. Belief in prophetic dreams: the work of ArtemidÔrus, 227—Conversion of an Epicurean, 229—The fighting-cock of Tanagra, 229—Piety displayed by animals, 230—Increased reverence paid to AsclÊpius and Heracles, 230—Aristeides the rhetor, 231—Deification of mortals, 232.

VII. The doctrine of immortality, 233—Epicurean epitaphs, 233—Attitude of the Stoics and Peripatetics, 234—Opinions of literary and scientific men, 234—Epitaphs testifying to the popular belief in a future life, 235—Articles found in tombs, 236—Evidence afforded by figured representations, 237—Frequency of ghostly apparitions, 240.

VIII. Reaction of supernaturalism on philosophy, 241—Decline of Epicureanism, 241—Religious tendencies of Stoicism: Seneca, 241—Complete substitution of theology for physics by EpictÊtus, 243—Why he rejected the doctrine of human immortality, 244—Superstition of Marcus Aurelius, 245—Decomposition of Stoicism: the Cynic revival, 246—Neo-Pythagoreanism: its temporary alliance with Stoicism, 247—and subsequent return to the spiritualism of Plato and Aristotle, 248—The Neo-Pythagorean creed, 249.

IX. Advantages possessed by Platonism in the struggle for existence, 250—Great extent of its influence, 250—The Platonist daemonology, 251—Conflicting tendencies in Plutarch’s writings, 253—Unmixed superstition of Maximus Tyrius and Apuleius, 254—A prose hymn to Isis, 255—Combination of philosophy with Oriental theology, 256—Philo and the Logos, 257—Dualistic pessimism of the Gnostics, 259.

X. Superficial analogy between modern Europe and the Roman empire, 261—Analysis of the points on which they differ, 262—Growth and influence of physical science, 264—Spread of rationalism through all classes of society, 265.

THE SPIRITUALISM OF PLOTINUSpages 266-362

I. Plutarch on Delays in the Divine Vengeance, 266—A vision of judgment, 267—Nero forgiven for the sake of Greece, 268—A century of western supremacy in politics and literature, 268—Reaction begun by Nero, 269—Revival of Greek literature: Plutarch and his successors, 269—Renewed cultivation of philosophy and science, 270—Sophisticism and Platonism of the second century, 271—The two methods of interpreting Plato, 272—The problem of the age, 273.

II. Life of Plotinus, 273—His personal influence and popularity, 275—The part assigned to him in a dialogue of Leopardi’s, 277—Composition and arrangement of his writings, 277—Mythical elements in his biography, 280—Alleged derivation of his teaching from Ammonius Saccas, 281.

III. Difficulties presented by the style of Plotinus, 282—General clearness of his philosophy, 284—His dependence on Plato and exclusive attention to the metaphysical side of Plato’s teaching, 285—His unacknowledged obligations to Aristotle, 287.

IV. Plotinus on the spiritual interpretation of love and beauty, 287—His departure from the method of Plato, 289—Aristotelian influences, 290—His subjective standpoint shared by Plato and Aristotle, 291—Relation of the post-Aristotelian schools to their predecessors, 292—The antithesis between materialism and spiritualism common to both, 292—Services rendered by the later schools, 293.

V. Anti-materialistic arguments of Plotinus, 294—Coincidence with modern philosophy, 295—Criticism of the Aristotelian doctrine, 296—Weakness of Greek philosophy in dealing with the phenomena of volition, 297—Difficulties raised by astrology, 298—Plotinus as a philosophical critic and reformer, 299.

VI. Intermediate position of the soul between the principles of unity and division, 302—Combination of the Aristotelian Nous with the Platonic Ideas, 303—Difficulties to which it gave rise, 304—Unity and plurality in the Ideas and in the Nous, 304—Descent of the soul into the material world, 305—The triad of body, soul, and spirit, 307—Search for a supreme principle of existence: data furnished by Plato and Aristotle, 307—The unity of all souls, 309—Universal dependence of existence on unity, 310—Method for arriving at the One, 310—To what extent Plotinus can be called a mystic, 312—Mystical elements in the systems of his predecessors, 313.

VII. Retrospect and recapitulation, 315—Transition to the constructive philosophy of Plotinus, 317—Three aspects of the supreme principle, 317—Creative power of the One, 318—Influence of false physical analogies on metaphysics, 319—Inconceivability of causation apart from time, 320—Subjective nature of logical and mathematical sequence, 321—The Neo-Platonic method in the Christian creeds, 322—How Plotinus employed the method of generation by contraries, 322—Difficulty of explaining the derivation of Soul from Nous, 323—and of accounting for the existence of Matter, 323—Return to the Platonic identification of Matter with Extension, 326—Generation of the Infinite from the One, 327—Hesitation of Plotinus between monism and dualism, 328—Influence of Stoicism, 329—Substitution of contemplation for action as a creative principle, 330.

VIII. The ethics of Plotinus: derivation of the cardinal virtues, 331—Absence of asceticism, 332—Condemnation of suicide, 332—Similar view expressed by Schopenhauer, 333—Dialectic as a method for attaining perfection, 333—The later writings of Plotinus, 334.

IX. Four points of view from which every great philosophical system may be considered, 334—Inferiority of Neo-Platonism to the older schools of Greek thought in absolute value, 335—Deserved neglect into which it has fallen, 336—In combining the metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle with Stoicism, Plotinus eliminates the elements of truth and utility which they severally contain, 336—High aesthetic value of Neo-Platonism, 338—Purity and unworldliness of Plotinus, 339—Complete self-absorption of thought which he represents, 340.

X. Neo-Platonism not a product of Oriental tendencies, 341—Nor of the religious revival of the empire, 342—Nor a mystical reaction against Scepticism, 343—Independent attitude of Plotinus towards the old religion, 344—His views on immortality, 345—His relation to pantheism, 346—His attack on the Gnostics, 347—Plotinus on the relation between religion and morality, 348—Neo-Platonism a part of the great classical revival, 349.

XI. The place of Plotinus in the history of philosophy, 350—The triumph of spiritualism due to his teaching, 350—He secures the supremacy of Plato and Aristotle during the Middle Ages, 351—His interpretation of Plato universally accepted until a recent date, 352—The pantheistic direction of modern metaphysics largely determined by Plotinus, 353—Neo-Platonic derivation of the Unknowable, 353—Atavism in philosophy, 355.

XII. History of Neo-Platonism after Plotinus, 355—Its alliance with the old religion, 356—Continued vitality of polytheism, 357—Increased study of the classic philosophers, 358—Proclus and his system, 358—The schools of Athens closed by Justinian, 360—The Greek professors in Persia, 361—Final extinction of pagan philosophy, 362.