The name beer is most commonly applied to a fermented infusion of malted barley, flavoured with hops. Its manufacture embraces two distinct operations, viz., malting and brewing. Briefly considered, the former process consists in first steeping barley (the seed of Hordeum distichon) in water and allowing it to germinate by arranging it in layers or heaps which are subsequently spread out and repeatedly turned over, the germination being thereby retarded; it is afterwards entirely checked by drying the grain (now known as malt) in cylinders or kilns.

The degree of temperature employed in drying and roasting the barley determines the colour and commercial character of the malt, which may be pale, amber, brown or black. In the United States the light-coloured varieties of malt are chiefly made. An important change which takes place during the malting of barley is the conversion of its albuminous constituents into a peculiar ferment, termed diastase, which, although its proportion in malt does not exceed 0·003 per cent., exerts a very energetic action in transforming starch, first into dextrine, then into sugar (maltose). The following analyses, by Proust, exhibit the general composition of unmalted and malted barley:—

The body termed hordeine is generally considered to be an allotropic modification of starch.

In the brewing of beer, the malted grain is crushed by means of iron rollers, and then introduced into the mash-tubs and digested with water at a temperature of about 75°, whereby the conversion of the starch into dextrine and sugar is effected. After standing for a few hours, the clear infusion, or wort, is drawn off and boiled with hops (the female flower of Humulus lupulus), after which it is rapidly cooled, and then placed in capacious vats where it is mixed with yeast and allowed to undergo the process of fermentation for several days, during which the formation of fresh quantities of yeast and a partial decomposition of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid take place. The beer is next separated from the yeast and transferred into clearing-vats, and, later on, into storage casks, where it undergoes a slow after-fermentation, at the completion of which it is ready for consumption. The quality of the water used in the process of mashing and brewing is of great importance, and it is of special moment that it should be free from all organic contaminations. The presence of certain mineral ingredients, notably of calcium sulphate, is believed to exert a beneficial effect on the character of the beer obtained.

In the United States, the best known varieties of malt liquors are ale, porter, and lager beer. The difference between ale and porter is mainly due to the quality of the malt used in their manufacture. Ale is made from pale malt, porter or stout from a mixture of the darker coloured malts, the method of fermentation employed being in both cases that known as the “superficial” (obergÄhrung), which takes place at a higher temperature and is of shorter duration than the “sedimentary” (untergÄhrung). The latter form of fermentation, which is used in the preparation of Bavarian or lager beer, occurs at a temperature of about 8°, and requires more time for its completion, during which the beer is, or should be, preserved in cool cellars for several months before it is fit for use; hence the common American name of this kind of beer, from lager, a storehouse. There are three varieties of Bavarian beer, “lager beer” proper, or the summer beer, which has been stored for about five months; “schenk,” or winter beer, which is fit for use in several weeks; and “bock” beer, which possesses more strength than the former, and is made in comparatively small quantities in the spring of the year. A mild kind of malt liquor, known as “weiss” beer, and prepared by a quick process of fermentation, is less frequently met with.

The first brewery in America is said to have been founded in New York in the year 1644, by Jacobus, who afterwards became the first burgomaster of the city, then New Amsterdam. Subsequently, William Penn established a brewery in Bucks Co., Pa., and a century later, General Putnam engaged in the manufacture of beer in the State of Connecticut. The brewing of lager beer in the United States began to assume prominence about thirty-five years ago. It is estimated that, at the present time, over 2000 breweries are devoted to the preparation of this form of malt liquor, with an invested capital of at least 60 millions of dollars, the annual production exceeding 15 millions of barrels.[69] The industry is chiefly carried on in New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati.

The composition of beer naturally varies according to the kind of grain from which it is made and the process of fermentation employed. The chief ingredients are alcohol, carbonic acid, sugar (maltose), dextrine, the oil and bitter principle of hops (lupuline), albuminoids, lactic, acetic, succinic and propionic acids, inorganic salts, and traces of glycerine. The term “extract” is applied to the non-volatile constituents, which include the sugar, dextrine, albuminoids, ash, etc. The foregoing table, collated from the analyses of various chemists, gives the general composition of some of the best known brands of malt liquor, as well as the minimum and maximum proportions that have been found.

The composition of beer ash is evidently affected by the character of the water used in the brewing process. Blyth gives the following as the average composition of the ash of English beers:—

The following results were obtained by the writer from the analysis of the ash of American lager beer of fair quality:—

Strictly speaking, normal beer consists solely of the product of malt and hops, and the presence of any ingredients other than these should be regarded as an adulteration. It is maintained by brewers, and with justice, that the term “malt” is not necessarily restricted to barley, but includes other varieties of malted grain, such as wheat, corn, and rice. The old English law, while permitting the addition of wholesome bitters, prohibits the use of various other substances, but in the United States, no legal definition of pure beer has, as yet, been formulated, and the necessity for such a measure is being experienced.[70] The past literature of beer adulteration makes mention of very numerous substances which, in former times, have been resorted to as admixtures. Among these the following are the most prominent:—

1st. Artificial bitters.—Picric acid, picrotoxine, aloes, gentian, quassia, and wormwood. Several years ago the author had occasion to examine two samples, imported under the name of “hop substitutes,” both of which proved to consist of salicine, the bitter principle of the willow. The fruit of the hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata), has also been employed as an artificial bitter for beer.

2nd. Flavourings.—For flavouring purposes, cayenne pepper, “grains of paradise,” cloves, orris root, coriander seeds, the oils of anise, nutmegs, and carraway, are stated to have been used.

3rd. Malt substitutes.—These mainly consist of corn, rice, and glucose.

A substitute for malt, of rather recent origin, and commercially known as “cerealine,” is prepared by subjecting hulled and coarsely ground Indian corn to the action of steam, the product being subsequently pulverised by means of hot rollers. It is said to have the following average composition:—

In addition to the foregoing, several chemical compounds, such as ammonium carbonate, tartaric acid, alkaline phosphates, boric and salicylic acids and glycerine are, or at least have been, employed as accessories in the manufacture of beer. From the investigations of the New York State Board of Health, it appears that the present adulteration of American beer—more especially of “lager beer”—is limited, so far as the brewer is concerned, to the use of various substitutes for malt, the addition of salt, and of sodium bicarbonate.

The proportion of diastase obtained by the germination of barley, or other cereals, is largely in excess of the amount required to convert into sugar the starch actually present in the grain treated; hence the brewer can add other forms of amylaceous substances, such as corn or rice, to malted barley with decided economy, and the majority of New York brewers employ such substitutes, usually in a proportion of 25 per cent. The brewer may likewise advantageously add glucose syrup to the malt infusion, since, by its use, he arrives at the same end, i. e. instead of obtaining all of his sugar as the result of the malting process, he directly provides himself with the same body, at least so far as it possesses value to him as a source of alcohol. The question of the sanitary effects of the use of artificial glucose as an adulterant of sugar and syrups, and as a substitute for malted grain in the manufacture of beer, has given rise to extensive controversy. In this regard, one fact seems to have been demonstrated. Glucose, as it is now to be found on the market, is free from any appreciable amount of deleterious contamination. The discovery of its artificial production has given birth to a very important branch of industry, and, according to all available reports, the commercial product at present met with is for many purposes an economical and harmless substitute for cane sugar, the chief objection to its application as such being the fact that it possesses considerably less sweetening power.

The United States National Academy of Sciences, after having carefully investigated the sanitary aspects of the glucose question, arrived at the following conclusion:[71] “That, though having at best only about two-thirds the sweetening power of cane sugar, yet starch sugar is in no way inferior to the cane sugar in healthfulness, there being no evidence before the committee that maize-starch sugar, either in its normal condition or fermented, has any deleterious effect upon the system, even when taken in large quantities.” In regard to the use of glucose as a substitute for malt in beer-making, it is asserted by some authorities that dietetic advantages to be derived from pure malt will be to some extent wanting in the extractive matters of beer manufactured partially from the artificial product. A distinction between glucose and maltose, to the advantage of the latter, is also made. The brewer, on the other hand, claims that sugar is sugar, whether obtained from the malting of grain or from the conversion of starch by the aid of acids. Regarding these bodies merely as sources of alcohol, attempts to differentiate between them are of little service. The superiority claimed for barley malt over its substitutes would rather appear to be due to its greater richness in certain soluble constituents, more especially those containing nitrogen and phosphoric acid.[72] A proposed law to prohibit the use of all malt substitutes has recently been rejected by the German Reichstag. In the English Beer Adulteration Act (1886), however, it is directed that, in case beer (ale or porter) made from other substances than hops and barley-malt is offered for sale, the fact shall be mentioned on a prominent placard, stating the nature of the foreign ingredients.

The addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to in order to increase the effervescing power of the beverage, and, possibly in some instances, to neutralise the acids formed by the souring of new and hastily prepared beer.[73] One of the chief objections to which certain inferior varieties of American lager beer are open is that they are not allowed to “age” properly. The apparent gain to the brewer of such beer consists in an economy of time and ice; he is also enabled to turn over his invested capital sooner than the more scrupulous manufacturer, who is thus placed in a disadvantageous position so far as trade competition is concerned. It is stated that some of the beer made in the neighbourhood of New York is sent out for consumption two weeks after its brewing.[74] Beer of this character would be apt to contain abnormally large proportions of dextrine, dextrose, etc., as well as be contaminated with unchanged yeast and other products of imperfect fermentation. It is said to be the practice to submit it to a process of clarification by means of isinglass and cream of tartar, and then impart additional life to the product by adding sodium bicarbonate, which is used in the form of cartridges or pills, and in a proportion of two ounces of the salt to the keg of beer.[75] Such a beverage obviously possesses very little claim to the name “lager” beer. It is, perhaps, to this reprehensible practice that many of the deleterious effects on the digestive organs which sometimes follow the consumption of considerable quantities of poor grades of lager beer are to be ascribed; and it is often asserted to be the fact that beer drinkers who have daily drunk from 20 to 25 glasses of German beer with apparent impunity, experience disagreeable results from the habitual consumption of much smaller quantities of some varieties of American lager.

It should be remarked, in this connection, that the brewer is by no means responsible for all of the sophistications to which beer is exposed, as after it leaves his hands it may be watered by the retailer as well as allowed to deteriorate in quality by careless methods of preservation. From all procurable information, it would appear that the only questionable features of beer brewing, as now generally carried on in the United States, are the following:—

1st. The use of corn and other meals, and of artificial glucose as substitutes for malted barley.

2nd. The use of sodium bicarbonate, to impart additional life to the beer, and the occasional use of common salt.

Concerning the alleged employment of artificial bitters in beer it should be stated, that a few years since, when a very marked increase occurred in the price of hops, other bitter preparations were advertised and offered for sale in the market; unfortunately, but little authentic data can be secured in regard to the extent of their use. At present, this form of adulteration has apparently been discontinued. It is worthy of notice, that the addition of hops to beer was originally considered a falsification, and was prohibited in England by legal enactments. In regard to the manufacture and sale of partially fermented beer, the question of the prevalence of this practice must be regarded as undetermined. No objection exists to the proper use of isinglass or other forms of gelatine for the clarification of beer.

Of 476 samples of beer tested by Dr. F. E. Engelhardt, of the New York State Board of Health, about one-quarter gave evidence of the use of malt substitutes in their manufacture, but no sample was conclusively shown to be adulterated with bitters other than hops.

The examination of beer properly includes an inspection of its physical characteristics, such as taste, colour, and transparency, the determination of the specific gravity, quantitative estimations of the proportions of alcohol, carbonic acid, extractive matter, sugar, organic acids, ash and phosphoric acid, and qualitative tests for the detection of the presence of artificial substitutes for malt and hops.

When of good quality, beer exhibits a bright and transparent colour, a faint but not disagreeable aroma, and a clean and slightly bitter taste. It should be free from any signs of viscosity, the appearance of which is usually an indication of the presence of unchanged yeast.

The specific gravity of beer is determined by first removing the excess of carbonic acid by repeatedly agitating the sample in a capacious glass flask, or by pouring it from one beaker into another several times, and then filling a specific gravity bottle with the liquid and allowing it to stand at rest until all air or gas bubbles have escaped; the weight of the bottle and its contents is now taken at 15°. In order to determine the proportion of alcohol present, 100 c.c. of the beer are introduced in a suitable flask which is connected with a Liebig’s condenser and subjected to distillation until about one-half of the quantity taken has passed over. The distillate is then made up to its original volume by the addition of water, and its density ascertained by means of the specific gravity bottle, from which the percentage of alcohol present (by weight and by volume) is readily obtained upon referring to the alcoholometric table on p. 144. The frothing of beer and the volatilisation of the free acids present are best obviated by the addition of a little tannic acid and baryta-water to the sample before the distillation. An indirect method for the determination of alcohol in beer is also frequently employed. It is accomplished by first ascertaining the density of the liquor, next removing the alcohol present by evaporation over the water-bath, subsequently adding sufficient water to restore the original volume and again taking the specific gravity of the product. The density of spirit of equal strength to the beer taken (X) is obtained by the formula, DD´ = X, in which D is the original gravity of the sample, and D´ the gravity of the de-alcoholised liquor when made up to its first volume. The following table (see p. 144) from ‘Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry’ gives the percentages of alcohol by volume and weight, corresponding to different densities at 15°.

The amount of carbonic acid is conveniently found by introducing 100 c.c. of the well-cooled beer into a rather large flask, provided with a delivery-tube which connects, first with a wash-bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid, next with a U-tube, filled with fused calcium chloride. The latter is connected with a Liebig’s bulb containing a solution of potassium hydroxide, then with a U-tube containing solid potassium hydroxide, both of which have previously been tared. The flask is heated over a water-bath until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases, after which, the gas remaining in the apparatus is caused to traverse the potash bulb by drawing air through it. This is done by means of a tube attached to the flask and reaching below the surface of the beer. At its other extremity, it is drawn out to a fine point and connected with a small potash bulb (for the retention of atmospheric carbonic acid), by aid of a rubber tube, which permits of breaking the glass point before drawing air through the apparatus. The amount of carbonic acid present in the sample is ascertained by the increase of weight found in the larger potash bulb and U-tube.

Alcoholometric Table for Beer, etc.

The proportion of malt extract in beer can be directly determined by the evaporation of 5 or 10 c.c. of the sample in a capacious platinum dish over the water-bath and drying the residue until constant weight is obtained.[76] It should be allowed to cool under a bell-jar over calcium chloride, before weighing. Usually the estimation is made by an indirect process, which consists in removing the alcohol by evaporation, bringing the liquid up to its original volume by the addition of water, and then taking its specific gravity and determining the percentage of malt extract by means of the following table:—

Specific Gravity and Strength of Malt Extract.

The sugar contained in beer is best determined by by taking 50 c.c. of the sample, adding 10 c.c. of plumbic basic acetate solution, and making the volume of the mixture up to 300 c.c. with distilled water. After standing for some time the solution is passed through a dry filter. It is then examined by cautiously adding it from a burette to 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution (diluted with 40 c.c. of distilled water and brought to the boiling-point), until the blue colour of the latter disappears (see p. 111). It should be borne in mind that, while 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution are reduced by 0·05 gramme of glucose, it requires 0·075 gramme of maltose to effect the same reduction.

In order to estimate the dextrine, 10 c.c. of the beer are reduced by evaporation to about 4 c.c., and heated with 1 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid to 110° by means of an oil-bath in a strong hermetically closed glass tube for five hours. At the completion of this operation the solution is neutralised with sodium hydroxide, diluted, and the total glucose determined by Fehling’s reagent, as just described. The glucose due to the conversion of the dextrine is found by deducting the amount of maltose (expressed in terms of glucose) previously obtained from the total glucose; 10 parts of glucose represent 9 parts of dextrine.

The organic acids (acetic and lactic) are estimated as follows:—(a) Acetic acid, by distilling 100 c.c. of the sample almost to dryness, and titrating the distillate with decinormal soda solution; (b) Lactic acid, by dissolving the residue remaining after the distillation in water, and either determining its acidity by decinormal soda, or by treating the residue with water and a little sulphuric acid, adding barium carbonate to the mixture, heating in the water-bath and filtering, the precipitate being thoroughly washed with hot water. The filtrate is then concentrated to a syrup by evaporation, and agitated in a test-tube with a mixture of 1 part each of sulphuric acid, alcohol, and water, and 10 parts of ether. After standing at rest for some time, the ethereal solution is separated by means of a pipette and evaporated to dryness in a tared capsule. The residue (impure lactic acid) can be weighed, or it is dissolved in water, the solution treated with zinc carbonate, and the lactic acid determined as zinc lactate, which contains 54·5 per cent. of the anhydrous acid.

Phosphoric acid may be estimated in the beer directly by first expelling the carbonic acid, then adding a small quantity of potassium acetate, heating, and titrating with a standard solution of uranium acetate, using potassium ferrocyanide as the indicator. It can also be determined gravimetrically in the ash.

The estimation of the ash is made by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample in a weighed platinum dish to dryness, and incinerating the residue at a rather moderate heat, so as to avoid volatilisation of the chlorides. The amount of ash in normal beer should never exceed 0·5 per cent., the usual proportion being about 0·3 per cent.; this would naturally be increased by the addition of sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride to the beer. The complete analysis of the ash is seldom necessary, but it is often of importance to estimate the amount of sodium chloride contained. This is effected by dissolving the ash-residue in distilled water and precipitating the chlorine from an aliquot portion of the solution by silver nitrate; one part of the precipitate obtained represents 0·409 part of common salt. The proportion of sodium chloride in pure beer is very inconsiderable, but it may be added to the beverage either to improve the flavour or to create thirst. For the determination of phosphoric acid, a weighed portion of the ash is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue boiled with water containing a little nitric acid. It is then filtered, concentrated by evaporation, an excess of ammonium molybdate solution added, and the mixture set aside for about ten hours, after which the precipitate formed is separated by filtration and dissolved in ammonium hydroxide. A solution of magnesium sulphate (mixed with a considerable quantity of ammonium chloride) is now added, and the precipitated ammonio-magnesium phosphate collected, washed, ignited, and weighed, 100 parts of this precipitate contain 64 parts of phosphoric anhydride (P2O5).

The positive detection of the presence of artificial substitutes for malt in beer is a matter of considerable difficulty. According to Haarstick, a large proportion of commercial glucose contains a substance termed amylin, which exerts a strong dextro-rotary effect upon polarised light, but is not destroyed by fermentation, and upon these facts is based a process for the identification of starch-sugar in beer. It is executed by evaporating 1 litre of the sample to the consistency of a syrup and separating the dextrine present by the gradual addition of 95 per cent. alcohol.[77] After standing at rest for several hours the liquid is filtered, the greater portion of the alcohol removed from the filtrate by distillation, and the residual fluid evaporated to dryness over the water-bath. The solid residue is then diluted to about a litre, yeast added, and the sugar present decomposed by allowing fermentation to take place for three or four days, at a temperature of 20°. It was found that, under these conditions, pure beer afforded a solution which was optically inactive when examined by the polariscope, while beer prepared from artificial glucose gave a solution possessing decided dextro-rotary power. The use of rice and glucose in the manufacture of beer is also indicated when there is a deficiency in the proportion of phosphoric acid in the ash, and of the extract, which applies, although to a somewhat less extent, if wheat or corn meal has been substituted for barley malt.

The following conclusions were reached by a commission of chemists appointed in Germany to determine standards for beer:—A fixed relation between the quantity of alcohol and extract in beer does not invariably exist. As a rule in Bavarian and lager beer, for 1 part by weight of alcohol a maximum of 2 parts and a minimum of 1·5 parts of extract should be present. In case malt has been replaced by glucose, or other non-nitrogenous substances, the percentage of nitrogen in the extract will fall below 0·65. The acidity should not exceed 3 c.c. of normal alkali solution for 100 c.c. of beer. The ash should not exceed 0·3 per cent. The maximum proportion of glycerine should not exceed 0·25 per cent. For clarification, the following means are permissible: Filtration, the use of shavings, etc., and of isinglass or other forms of gelatine; for preservation, carbonic acid gas, and salicylic acid may be employed—the latter, however, only in beer which is intended for exportation to countries where its use is not prohibited.

Several samples of so-called “beer preservatives” examined by the author, consisted of a solution of sodium salicylate and borax, dissolved in glycerine. Salicylic acid is employed in order to prevent fermentation in beer, which is exposed to great variations in temperature. Its presence is detected by the following process, suggested by RÖse,[78] which is equally applicable to wine:—The beer (or wine) is acidulated with sulphuric acid, and well shaken with its own volume of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum naphtha. After standing at rest, the ethereal layer is removed by a pipette, and evaporated or distilled until reduced to a few c.c. A little water and a few drops of a dilute ferric chloride solution are then added, and the liquid filtered: in presence of salicylic acid, the filtrate will exhibit a violet colour. In the case of wines, where the presence of tannic acid might interfere with the salicylic acid reaction, the filtrate is re-acidulated, then diluted, and the treatment with the ether mixture and iron chloride repeated. The second residue will now show the violet coloration, even in wines rich in tannin, and containing but 0·2 milligramme of salicylic acid per litre. The tannin can also be removed by precipitation with gelatine, and the colour test for salicylic acid subsequently applied. Glycerine is likewise sometimes used as a preservative of beer, and is also added to render the liquor richer in appearance, by communicating a viscosity to the froth which causes it to adhere longer to the sides of the glass. It can be quantitatively estimated by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample in a capsule at a temperature of 75°, until the carbonic acid has been expelled, then adding about 5 grammes of magnesium hydroxide, and thoroughly stirring the mixture until it forms a homogeneous, semifluid mass. The contents of the dish are allowed to cool, and are then well digested with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and the fluid portion afterwards separated by decantation, the residual mass being again treated with 20 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and the alcoholic solution thus obtained added to the first. The malose, parapeptone, etc., present in the solution are now precipitated by adding (with constant stirring) 300 c.c. of anhydrous ether, after which the liquid is filtered, and the filtrate concentrated, at first by spontaneous evaporation, subsequently by heating over the water-bath, until it assumes the consistency of a syrup, when it is placed in an exsiccator which connects with an air-pump, where it is allowed to remain for twenty-four hours. The syrupy residue is then digested with 20 c.c. of absolute alcohol and filtered, the filtrate being collected in a tared capsule, which is again exposed to the heat of the water-bath, and allowed to remain in the exsiccator for twelve hours, after which it is weighed. The increase in weight gives approximately the amount of glycerine contained in the beer examined.[79]

It is certain that many of the poisonous substances which in former times have been detected in beer, such as strychnine, hyoscyamine, picric acid, and picrotoxine, are not used at present. It is much more probable that such bitters as gentian and quassia may be met with, especially at times when hops are dear. These latter far exceed hops in bitterness, and do not exert deleterious effects upon health. Willow bark, or its active principle, salicine, has also been employed. The detection of some of the most apocryphal substitutes for hops is effected, according to Wiltstein,[80] by the following method: One litre of the beer is concentrated over the water-bath to a syrupy liquor, which is introduced into a rather capacious tared cylinder and weighed. The gum, dextrine, and mineral salts are first separated by adding to the syrup five times its weight of 95 per cent. alcohol, with which it is thoroughly mixed, and allowed to digest for twenty-four hours. The clear, supernatant solution is now drawn off, and the residue treated with a fresh quantity of alcohol, which is afterwards united with the solution first obtained, the whole being then evaporated until the alcohol is expelled. A small portion of the residue is dissolved in a little water, and tested for picric acid, as described later on. The remainder is repeatedly shaken with about six times its weight of pure benzol, which is subsequently removed by decantation, the operation being then repeated with fresh benzol, the two solutions added and evaporated to dryness at a very moderate temperature. The residue thus obtained is divided into three portions, which are placed in small porcelain dishes and tested as follows:—

To one portion a little nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·330) is added; if a red coloration ensues, brucine is present; if a violet colour, colchicine. A second portion is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid; the production of a red colour indicates the presence of colocynthine. To a third portion, a few fragments of potassium dichromate and a little sulphuric acid are added; if a purple-violet coloration takes place, strychnine is present.

The portion of the syrup which has remained undissolved by benzol is first dried over the water-bath, and then agitated with pure amylic alcohol, by which treatment picrotoxine and aloes, if present, will go in solution, and impart a bitter taste to the liquid.

The solution can be examined as subsequently directed for picrotoxine; the presence of aloes is best recognised by the characteristic saffron-like odour possessed by this body. The syrup which remains after the successive treatments with benzol and amylic alcohol is next freed from any remaining traces of the latter compound by means of blotting-paper, and then thoroughly agitated with anhydrous ether, which is afterwards removed and allowed to spontaneously evaporate. If the residue now obtained exhibits a wormwood-like aroma, and gives a reddish yellow solution, which rapidly changes to a deep blue when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, absinthine is present. The syrup insoluble in ether may still contain quassine, gentipicrine, and menyanthine, and the presence of any of these bodies is indicated if it possesses a bitter taste, since the bitter principle of hops would have been removed by the foregoing treatment with solvents. The syrup is dissolved in a little warm water, the solution filtered and divided into two portions. To one a concentrated ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is added, and the mixture heated: if it remains clear, quassine is probably present; the formation of a metallic mirror points to the presence of either gentipicrine or menyanthine. A second portion of the aqueous solution is cautiously evaporated in a small porcelain capsule, and a few drops of strong sulphuric acid are added to the residue: if no change takes place in the cold, but upon applying heat a carmine-red coloration appears, gentipicrine is present; if a yellowish brown colour, which afterwards changes to a violet, is produced, the presence of menyanthine is probable.[81]

Picric acid can be detected by means of the following tests:—

1. Upon shaking pure beer with animal charcoal, it becomes decolorised, whereas beer containing picric acid retains a lemon-yellow colour after this treatment.

2. The bitter taste of normal beer is removed by treatment with a little plumbic diacetate and filtering, which is not the case with the flavour imparted by the use of picric acid.

3. Unbleached wool or pure flannel will acquire a decided yellow colour if boiled for a short time in beer adulterated with picric acid, and afterwards washed.

4. Upon agitating 20 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test-tube with 10 c.c. of amylic alcohol, allowing the mixture to remain at rest, and then removing the amylic alcohol, a solution is obtained which contains any picric acid present in the sample treated. It is evaporated to dryness, the residue dissolved in a little warm distilled water, and the aqueous solution submitted to the following tests:—

(a) To one portion a concentrated solution of potassium cyanide is added; in presence of picric acid, a blood-red colour is produced, due to the formation of iso-purpuric acid.

(b) A second portion is treated with a solution of cupric-ammonium sulphate; if picric acid be present, minute greenish crystals of cupric-ammonium picrate will be formed.

(c) To a third portion, a little ammonium sulphide, containing free ammonium hydroxide, is added; in presence of picric acid, picramic acid is produced, the formation of which is accelerated by the application of heat, and is made evident by the appearance of an intensely red colour.

The detection of cocculus indicus, or its poisonous alkaloid, picrotoxine, may be effected by first agitating the beer with plumbic acetate, filtering, removing the lead from the filtrate by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and again filtering. The filtrate is first boiled, then carefully evaporated until it possesses a thickish consistency, when it is shaken up with animal charcoal, which is afterwards brought upon a filter, washed with a very little cold water, and dried at 100°. The picrotoxine possibly present is then extracted from the animal charcoal by boiling it with strong alcohol, from which the alkaloid separates on evaporating the solution, either in quadrilateral prisms or in feathery tufts.

Again reverting to beer adulteration, Prof. H. B. Cornwall has lately made an interesting report in this regard.[82] Several years ago, in reply to a circular issued by the “Business Men’s Moderation Society of New York City,” the “Association of United Lager Beer Brewers” asserted that the only substitutes for barley malt employed were corn starch, corn meal, rice, glucose, and grape sugar, no artificial bitters being used. The addition of glucose and grape sugar, the association stated, was not necessarily on account of economy, but had for its object an increase in the strength of the wort, without resorting to concentration and the production of beer of desirable flavour and colour. RÜdlinger[83] denies that beer is subjected to injurious adulteration in Germany. He states substantially as follows: “Cases of sickness, frequently claimed to be caused by the beer, are due either to excess or to the consumption of the new and incompletely fermented beverage. It has been affirmed that brewers often economise in hops by the use of other and deleterious bitters, and that picric acid and strychnine have been employed for this purpose. Nonsense, once written, is frequently copied by hundreds, and in this way circulates among the masses. The maximum amount of hops used in beer is really inconsiderable, and, there exists no necessity for resorting to foreign substitutes, even in seasons when the price of hops is abnormally high, since the proportion of this ingredient could be slightly decreased without incurring the danger of detection which would follow the use of artificial bitters.” On the other hand, it is certain that, in past years, such injurious additions as cocculus indicus, picric acid, aloes, etc., have actually been discovered by chemists of high standing in bitter ale and other forms of beer. A. Schmidt,[84] asserts that glycerine, alum, and sodium bicarbonate are added to beer, and states that beer, poor in extractive and alcoholic constituents, is liable to become sour, a defect which is remedied by the use of alkalies and chalk, the resulting disagreeable taste being disguised by means of glycerine. The same authority deprecates the use of glucose on account of the absence of nutritious albuminoids and phosphates in this substance. It would certainly appear obvious that the direct addition of starch-sugar to the wort, which results in augmenting the alcoholic strength of beer without correspondingly increasing the proportion of valuable extractive matter, is of doubtful propriety. Grains are less open to this objection. Of these, maize is generally regarded as the best substitute for barley malt, both on account of its similarity in composition and its cheapness. The International Congress of Medical Sciences, held at Brussels in 1875, adopted the following resolutions:—

1. Genuine beer should be made from grain and hops.

2. No other substances should replace these, either wholly or partially.

3. All substitutes should be considered as adulterations, and should come under the penalty of the law, even if not deleterious to health.

The German Brewers’ Association, at its Frankfort meeting, defined wholesome beer as the produce of malt, hops, yeast, and water with a partial substitution of the malt by starch meal, rice, maize, and glucose, and regarded the use of some malt substitutes as permissible on scientific and hygienic grounds. It recommended, however, that, in case such substitutes are employed, the beer so prepared should be designated by a distinctive name, such as “rice beer,” “sugar beer,” etc.

The darker varieties of beer are sometimes artificially coloured by the addition of caramel, and, although the result reached is virtually the same as that caused by the over-roasting of malt, the practice is prohibited in Germany unless the product is designated as “coloured beer.”[85] According to Guyot, some of the Bavarian beer sold in Paris is coloured with methyl orange.[86] Licorice is employed in beer brewing in Germany, both on account of its sweetening power and for clarifying purposes.

In regard to the use of artificial preservatives, such as salicylic acid and sodium bisulphite, it is very probable that articles of food which have been treated with these preparations are not readily digested. Their use, moreover, should be unnecessary, if due care has been exercised in the manufacture of the beer. This is especially applicable to beer intended for home consumption.