6. History:—A knowledge of the more remarkable events in the history of great nations, of the general connection, causes, and consequences of these events; a knowledge of the remarkable men of all such nations down to the present time. Special knowledge of the history of Greece, Rome, Germany, Prussia, with particular reference in this last case to its external growth, inner development, and to the principal events of the most important wars since the middle of the eighteenth century.

7. Readiness in general drawing, and in constructing mathematical figures; some skill in drawing plans of positions and mountains, in the way of preparation for military plan drawing.

8. The candidate may, in addition, be examined in other subjects, in which his certificates show that he has been instructed; for example, in Natural Philosophy, so far as included in his previous course of instruction.

It must be remembered that either before or after this examination some months must be spent in actual service with the troops by all but the pupils belonging to the Selecta of the cadet school; and that nine months of study at the division and artillery and engineer schools intervenes before the officers examination takes place.

2. The Second or Officer’s Examination.

The second or final examination for a commission, which generally ensues when the work of the division school is over, is held in Berlin only, and is conducted immediately by the central commission, to which reference has so often been made—the supreme Military Examinations Board, the Ober-Militair-Examinations Commission. This board or commission, a list of the existing members of which is given in page 179, consists, for the purpose now in consideration, of a president and five examiners, selected from the larger number to examine candidates for commissions.

The examinations are held continually; two opportunities are afforded every year to the candidates sent from each of the various army corps. The requisite papers must be forwarded to the commission eight days at least beforehand, and the candidates must appear in Berlin, and take up their quarters in the buildings placed at the disposal of the board on the Friday preceding the day fixed for the examination. The examination usually begins on the following Monday, and lasts through the week. The expenses of the journey are allowed, except, perhaps, when the candidate comes up a second time.

The certificates to be presented are the following:—

1. The certificate of birth, age, parentage, &c. (This is called the Nationale.)

2. The Curriculum VitÆ, (an account of the circumstances of the candidates’s past life, his education, employment, &c., &c.)

3. The certificate that he has already passed through a previous examination (the Tentamen,) held by the authorities of the division school.

4. A certificate of conduct during his stay at the division school.

5. A military drawing (Croquis,) with an attestation given by his instructor that it is the candidate’s own doing.

This examination, like the preliminary one, is partly on paper and partly oral. General directions are given that the examiners in both cases shall look mainly to the question whether the candidate has sufficient positive knowledge of his subjects, and capacity to explain and express himself, that mere lapses of memory shall not be regarded, and that natural endowments shall be principally looked to.

In the written examination, the candidate has four questions given him in what is called the knowledge or theory of arms (Waffenlehre,) including under that term all kinds of ammunition; three in tactics; one question in the rules and regulations which touch the duty of a subaltern officer; two questions in permanent and two in field fortification; one exercise in surveying, to test his acquaintance with the common instruments, and one to try his knowledge of the principles of plan drawing (Terrain-Darstellung;) while his general skill in military drawing is proved by his either copying a plan placed before him, or drawing one from a relief model of a mountainous district (nach Bergmodellen.)

There is a viv voce examination in all the subjects.

The commission meets once every month to consider the examinations held since their last meeting. The result is announced under the form of the predicates or epithets already more than once referred to. Honorable mention is accorded to an excellent examination, and mention to a good one. If there has been an unsatisfactory result in one of the subjects, the candidate may compensate for it by superiority in other subjects, but can only in this case be qualified as satisfactory (befriedigend,) and an adequate knowledge of “arms” and tactics is regarded as indispensable in candidates for the infantry or cavalry, and in “arms” and fortification in those for the artillery and engineers. No superior work in other subjects is allowed to make up for a deficiency in these.

If a candidate’s work is marked as insufficient (nicht hinreichend,) he is sent back for another half-year, and if he has done unsatisfactorily, for a complete year of additional study, with leave to appear for re-examination after that interval. In a case of re-examination, the two last predicates (nicht hinreichend and ungenÜgend) entail final rejection.

The report of the board is submitted to the king; the results are communicated to the various corps. The announcements sent to the candidates state the predicates assigned to the various portions of their work. Those who have passed, receive certificates of being qualified for the second lieutenant’s commission:—

This rank, however, is not immediately granted. A vacancy may be long in occurring, and must be waited for. Promotion is given according to their seniority on the list of ensigns in the regiment. Another condition must also be satisfied. When a vacancy occurs, the senior ensign’s name can not be submitted to the king for his appointment without a document stating on the part of the officers of the regiment that he has the requisite knowledge of the duties of the service, and that they consider him worthy of admission amongst them (wÜrdig in seine Mitte zu treten.) If the majority is opposed to his admission, the name of the next ensign in order of seniority is, without further discussion, brought forward; if a minority or merely some individual officers take exception, they state the grounds of their opinion, which are then submitted for consideration.6

Special merit in the examination may be, at the king’s pleasure, held a sufficient reason for promotion before all candidates examined at the same time.

The following is the programme of the studies, proficiency in which is expected of candidates at the second or officer’s examination:—

The preparation for this second, severer, and professional test that has just been described, is usually obtained in the division schools, of which an account will shortly follow, and to which any young man once accepted as a candidate, who has served his six months with the troops, and has passed his preliminary or ensign examination, may be admitted, even though a vacancy has not yet occurred, and he has not yet received his definitive promotion to the ensign’s grade.

V. MILITARY SCHOOLS FOR PREPARING OFFICERS.

The Cadet Schools or Cadet Houses.

The actual military education of Prussia commences with the cadet houses, the schools intended for pupils before entering the army. They are divided into two classes, the junior and the senior. They can not indeed be called exclusively military schools, since the education which most of their pupils receive is one which fits them for civil professions, and is not specially military; and there is no obligation even on those who have received the largest amount of pecuniary assistance to enter the military profession when they leave the cadet house. The highest class, however, of the Upper Cadet School of Berlin, called the Selecta, receives strictly military teaching for a year, and the schools may fairly come under this denomination, as being mainly intended to educate the sons of officers who are in want of assistance, and as possessing a military discipline, uniform, and spirit.

These are five in number, four preparatory schools, and one a finishing institution; the four first in the provinces, at Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, the last in the capital itself. At the four junior schools, boys may be admitted at 10 or 11, and may remain till 15; at the upper school the ordinary stay is from 15 or 16 to 18 or 19.

The whole constitute together a single body, called the cadet corps. Boys may enter the school at Berlin on passing an examination, without previously attending one of the lower schools; but those who are sent up by the authorities from Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, are received without examination, being already members of the corps. Asingle officer exercises the command of the whole; and a single commission, of which the general inspector is chairman, regulates all matters relating to the admission of candidates into the body.

The whole number at present is between 1,100 and 1,200, of whom 420 are in the Upper School at Berlin, 205 in the Preparatory School at Potsdam, and 200 at each of the other houses.

The cadets are of two kinds, the King’s cadets and the Pensioners or paying pupils; the former are 720 in number, the latter about 420. The pensioners pay 200 dollars (30l.) a year for board and instruction together; the King’s cadets are aided in various degrees accordingly to the following scale:—

Foreigners are admissible at a yearly payment of 300 dollars (45l.,) and a few extra day scholars (Hospitanten,) when the classes are not too full, are received for 20 dollars a year (3l.)

The King’s cadetships are granted, according to the pecuniary circumstances of the applicants, to the children of officers of the standing army, or of the Landwehr, who have distinguished themselves or have been invalided in actual service in the field; to the children of non-commissioned officers who have in like manner distinguished themselves and received severe wounds in the service; and to those of any citizens who have performed any special service to the state. The sons of meritorious officers who have died in indigence or have retired upon pensions, the sons of indigent officers in general in the standing army, and the sons of meritorious non-commissioned officers of twenty-five years’ standing, are also in like manner eligible.

In very special cases of poverty, the supplementary payment is dispensed with altogether.

Pensioners are admitted from all classes and professions according to priority of application, and to their qualifications as shown by their examination. Agreat number of these are said to be the sons of officers, of those, namely, who are not in need of pecuniary assistance. And the number of the pensioners generally appears to be steadily on the increase. In the regulations printed in 1850, the places open for this class of cadets are stated to be only 216; at present, as has been seen, provision is made for something like double that number.

The four junior schools at Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, are all divided for purposes of instruction upon the same uniform plan into four classes, numbered up from six to three—Sexta at the bottom; Quinta; Quarta; and Tertia at the top. The upper school at Berlin succeeds with three classes, the second, the first, and the special or select—Secunda, Prima, and Selecta. Each of these classes, however, may contain any number of co-ordinate subdivisions, all taught the same subjects, and presumed to contain pupils of the same capacity. No teacher, it is considered, can satisfactorily undertake to give a lesson to more than thirty at a time; and the Secunda at Berlin was thus parted out in the year ending March, 1856, into eight little sets of rather less than thirty, the Prima into six, and the Selecta into two.

Junior Cadet House.

The junior cadet house at Potsdam occupies four or five buildings a little way out of the town. The class-rooms are on the usual Prussian plan, not arranged for lectures to large, but for lessons with small numbers. One distinguishing feature is the character of the arrangements of the rooms up-stairs, in which the boys pass their time out of school hours. They are very comfortable chambers, perhaps rather small for the numbers at present placed in them; they are ranged along a corridor; ten pupils are placed in each, and between every two rooms is the apartment of one of the resident tutors (Erzieher or Gouverneur,) who sees that all goes on right in these two rooms under his charge. Here the boys sit and work, and during the hours when they are expected to be preparing their lessons, are carefully looked after by their tutors.

These little apartments occupy one whole floor of the building. The floor above is that of the dormitories, containing each, perhaps, as many as sixty. The number at present in the school was stated to be two hundred and five, and the accommodation properly intended for only one hundred and sixty.

Colonel von Rosenberg, the commandant of the school, stated that eleven was the usual age at which the pupils came. This he appeared to think was rather too early, and he was inclined to attribute to this cause certain points in the character of young men who have been educated in the cadet corps. Eighty of his two hundred and five pupils were pensioners, or paying pupils; many of these also were the sons of officers. The teachers and tutors are partly civilians and partly military men, about an equal number of each. The four classes, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, and Sexta, are subdivided into nine, so that the average number at a lesson would not be more than twenty-three.

Senior Cadet House.

The upper or central cadet school is in the older part of Berlin, in the Neue Friedrichs Strasse, where on the pediment surmounting the gateway the inscription, MARTIS ET MINERVÆ ALUMNIS M.DCC. LXXVI, records the erection by Frederick the Great, ten years before his death, of the large and stately quadrangle which formed the original house. Here the pupils are quartered, and in the great court within, they go through their exercises. There are several houses on both sides of the street attached to the service of the institution, and buildings are in course of erection to accommodate additional numbers.

A large separate building contains the present class-rooms. In the first of these which we visited, thirty cadets were engaged in military drawing; in another, twenty-four of the second class, the Secunda, were busy at their Latin lesson.

The room was fitted up on what appears to be the usual plan, with a series of parallel desks on the same level, ranged along the outer wall, and a sufficient space between them and the inner wall for the teacher to pass freely up and down. His desk was at one end in front of the boys. The lesson was in Quintus Curtius. The teacher (acivilian) made them construe each a sentence, and asked questions in parsing, &c., &c., much in the English manner. There was no taking places. This in German schools appears to be confined to quite the lower classes. There is a separate lecture-room here again for lessons on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, with a small gallery of models, instruments, &c., attached to it.

A large hall is used on state occasions, and serves the purpose also of an examination-room; it is called the hall of the Field Marshals, and is adorned with portraits of the sovereigns of Prussia from the Great Elector downwards, and of the field marshals both of the time of Frederick the Great and of more recent date, among whom is the Duke of Wellington. Here also is kept Napoleon’s sword taken at “La Belle Alliance,” and presented by Marshal Blucher.

Passing to the first floor of the great quadrangular building, we found ourselves in one of the sitting-rooms of the cadets. Seven boys had a couple of rooms, consisting of a common sitting-room, and a common bed-room. Five is the number for which this amount of accommodation was intended, and to five the number will be reduced when the new buildings are completed. In a second and larger pair of rooms we found twelve boys.

Here also is the library, containing 10,000 volumes, and comfortable apartments occupied by the various superintending officers.

The boys, their morning lessons completed, had been going through their military exercises under the superintendence of their officers; but they were now collected in their studying-rooms, and were seen forming at the doors, each small party under the command of its senior, ready to march into the large and handsome dinner-hall.

Into this the whole body of young men presently moved by companies, proceeding to station themselves in front of the tables. The tables are ranged in parallel lines on each side of the central passage, and accommodate each of them ten, four sitting at each side, and a senior at each end. The order was given by the officer on duty for “prayer” (Nun beten wir,) and a short silent grace was followed by the immediate occupation of the seats, and the commencement of the meal. The arrangements in general appeared to be excellent.

The number in the school during the past year had been 420. The four companies into which the whole body of the pupils is divided, each contain a certain proportion from each of the three classes; the senior in each company being invested with the charge of the juniors; those who are in the Selecta taking rank as under officers. In every room (Stube or Wohnzimmer) there is one Selectaner, who is responsible. The ordinary ages are 15, 16 in the Secunda; 16, 17 in the Prima, and as far as 19 in the Selecta. No one is, as a rule, allowed to pass more than one year in a class; if in that time he can not qualify himself for advancement, he is dismissed. The rule does not, however, appear to be strictly enforced. The general preservation of discipline appears to be a good deal intrusted, as in English public schools, to these senior pupils of the age of eighteen or nineteen. There are Resident Tutors (Erziehers or Gouverneurs) as at Potsdam, who see a good deal of the pupils, especially in the evenings, when they go into the sitting-rooms, sit with them, help them in their work, play at chess with them, &c., &c. But they do not sleep close at hand between the sets of rooms, as at Potsdam, but at some little distance off.

The official arrangements for the control of the discipline consist principally in the system of what are called Censur Classes. This is a peculiar system which requires some explanation. There are five Censur Classes quite independent of the ordinary classes of the school. Aboy on entering the Cadet School is always placed in the third of these classes; if he behaves ill, he falls to Class IV. and is under restrictions. Class V. is reserved for serious cases of misconduct, and any one who incurs the penalty of descending to it, is subject to continual superintendence, and is confined to the walls. Class II. gives considerable, and Class I. still more ample privileges. The members of this class (usually only quite the elder boys) are allowed great freedom in the way of going out into the town.

In each of the studying-rooms (the Wohnzimmer) the list of the occupants’ names hangs up on the door inside. One for example was noticed containing twelve names. To each was attached his rank in the Censur Classes, as well as his position in the ordinary classes. At the head stood one Selectaner, who in this instance was in charge of the room; then followed the Primaners; and the list was completed by nine of the Secunda. As at the time of our visit (just after the Easter holidays and the yearly examination) the whole Selecta of the year had just quitted, the room was in the charge of the senior Primaner. The authority exercised by these senior boys appears to be very considerable.

The competition for admission to the Selecta, and for the after selection for immediate promotion, was spoken of as very considerable.

The number who came to the Berlin Cadet House without previously going to one of the junior establishments was said to be only a small per-centage.

The boys both here and at Potsdam were of course all found dressed in a military uniform.

The studies pursued in the Cadet Corps agree nearly with those of the common public schools, but of these there are three different kinds:—

1. The ordinary first-class school, the gymnasium of the Prussian States, is, strictly speaking, a school which prepares for the universities.

2. The second-class schools have the name of Real or Practical Schools; they deal with the actual application to business and work, not with the theory of mathematics or of language, and they may be said to resemble in some degree the schools occasionally attached in English towns to Mechanics’ Institutes, or in the United States, to the Public English High School or the Higher Department of a Union School. Young men who have passed successfully through a gymnasium may be admitted to the army without passing the preliminary or PortepÉe-fÄhnrich examination. Those who complete their time at a Real School have not hitherto been allowed the same privilege.

3. There is a third and intermediate class called a Real or Practical Gymnasium, and to this, according to the statements of the official books, the courses of the Cadet Schools have hitherto corresponded. It appears, however, that there is only one specimen of the Real Gymnasium now in existence, the CoËln School in the old town of Berlin. The system here is said to be more practical than the Gymnasium, and less professional or mechanical than the Real School.

It is intended during the present year to assimilate the course of instruction at the Cadet Schools more nearly to that followed at the Gymnasium or University School; the studies of the senior Cadet School at Berlin will be raised to a higher standard, but Greek and Hebrew, which are taught in all gymnasiums, will not be introduced.

The two systems have corresponded as follows :—

The Selecta, the Military Class, corresponds with the classes of the Division Schools, and with the first year’s course of the Artillery and Engineers’ School.

The plan pursued, both as regards, first, the subjects taught, and second, the amount of time, is as follows:—

The instruction consists throughout, from Sexta up to Prima, of lessons in Latin, German, French, Arithmetic, History, Geography. Natural History begins in the Quinta, at 12 or 13 years old, with Botany and ZoÖlogy; Mineralogy follows, at 14 or 15; Natural Philosophy at 15 or 16.The first elements of drawing, with the use of rulers, compasses, &c., begins also in Quinta, at 12 or 13.Practice in regular plan-drawing is gradually and increasingly given in every year. The first elements of geometry are taught in the Quarta, and Euclid I. 47. Pythagoras, has to be mastered at 14 years old. Theoretical Arithmetic, in combination with Algebra, is commenced apparently in the Tertia.

The subjects taught in the Secunda, Prima, and Selecta, that is, the course of the Upper School at Berlin, has hitherto been as follows:—

1. OF PLANE FIGURES.

Measure of the distance of two points.—Two finite right lines being given, to find their common measure, or at least their approximate ratio.

Of angles.—Right, acute, obtuse angles.—Angles vertically opposite are equal.

Of triangles.—Angles and sides.—The simplest cases of equality.—Elementary problems on the construction of angles and of triangles.

Of perpendiculars and of oblique lines.

Among all the lines that can be drawn from a given point to a given right line, the perpendicular is the shortest, and the oblique lines are longer in proportion to their divergence from the foot of the perpendicular.

Properties of the isosceles triangle.—Problems on tracing perpendiculars.—Division of a given straight line into equal parts.

Cases of equality of right-angled triangles.

Of parallel lines.

Properties of the angles formed by two parallels and a secant.—Reciprocally, when these properties exist for two right lines and a common secant, the two lines are parallel.1—Through a given point, to draw a right line parallel to a given right line, or cutting it at a given angle.—Equality of angles having their sides parallel and their openings placed in the same direction.

III. ALGEBRA.

Algebra4 is not, as are Arithmetic and Geometry, indispensable to every one. It should be very sparingly introduced into the general education of youth, and we would there willingly dispense with it entirely, excepting logarithms, if this would benefit the study of arithmetic and geometry. The programme of it which we are now to give, considers it purely in view of its utility to engineers, and we will carefully eliminate every thing not necessary for them.

Algebraical calculation presents no serious difficulty, when its students become well impressed with this idea, that every letter represents a number; and particularly when the consideration of negative quantities is not brought in at the outset and in an absolute manner. These quantities and their properties should not be introduced except as the solution of questions by means of equations causes their necessity to be felt, either for generalizing the rules of calculation, or for extending the meaning of the formulas to which it leads. Clairaut pursues this course. He says, “Itreat of the multiplication of negative quantities, that dangerous shoal for both scholars and teachers, only after having shown its necessity to the learner, by giving him a problem in which he has to consider negative quantities independently of any positive quantities from which they are subtracted. When I have arrived at that point in the problem where I have to multiply or divide negative quantities by one another, I take the course which was undoubtedly taken by the first analysts who have had those operations to perform and who have wished to follow a perfectly sure route: Iseek for a solution of the problem which does not involve these operations; Ithus arrive at the result by reasonings which admit of no doubt, and I thus see what those products or quotients of negative quantities, which had given me the first solution, must be.” Bezout proceeds in the same way.

We recommend to teachers to follow these examples; not to speak to their pupils about negative quantities till the necessity of it is felt, and when they have become familiar with algebraic calculation; and above all not to lose precious time in obscure discussions and demonstrations, which the best theory will never teach students so well as numerous applications.

It has been customary to take up again, in algebra, the calculus of fractions, so as to generalize the explanations given in arithmetic, since the terms of literal fractions may be any quantities whatsoever. Rigorously, this may be well, but to save time we omit this, thinking it better to employ this time in advancing and exercising the mind on new truths, rather than in returning continually to rules already given, in order to imprint a new degree of rigor on their demonstration, or to give them an extension of which no one doubts.

The study of numerical equations of the first degree, with one or several unknown quantities, must be made with great care. We have required the solution of these equations to be made by the method of substitution. We have done this, not only because this method really comprehends the others, particularly that of comparison, but for this farther reason. In treatises on algebra, those equations alone are considered whose numerical coefficients and solutions are very simple numbers. It then makes very little difference what method is used, or in what order the unknown quantities are eliminated. But it is a very different thing in practice, where the coefficients are complicated numbers, given with decimal parts, and where the numerical values of these coefficients may be very different in the same equation, some being very great and some very small. In such cases the method of substitution can alone be employed to advantage, and that with the precaution of taking the value of the unknown quantity to be eliminated from that equation in which it has relatively the greatest, coefficient. Now the method of comparison is only the method of substitution put in a form in which these precautions cannot be observed, so that in practice it will give bad results with much labor.

The candidates must present to the examiners the complete calculations of the resolution of four equations with four unknown quantities, made with all the precision permitted by the logarithmic tables of Callet, and the proof that that precision has been obtained. The coefficients must contain decimals and be very different from one another, and the elimination must be effected with the above precautions.

The teaching of the present day disregards too much the applicability of the methods given, provided only that they be elegant in their form; so that they have to be abandoned and changed when the pupils enter on practice. This disdain of practical utility was not felt by our great mathematicians, who incessantly turned their attention towards applications. Thus the illustrious Lagrange made suggestions like those just given; and Laplace recommended the drawing of curves for solving directly all kinds of numerical equations.

As to literal equations of the first degree, we call for formulas sufficient for the resolution of equations of two or three unknown quantities. Bezout’s method of elimination must be given as a first application of that fruitful method of indeterminates. The general discussion of formulas will be confined to the case of two unknown quantities. The discussion of three equations with three unknown quantities, x, y, and z, in which the terms independent of the unknown quantities are null, will be made directly, by this simple consideration that the system then really includes only two unknown quantities, to wit, the ratios of x and y, for example, to z.

The resolution of inequalities of the first degree with one or more unknown quantities, was added to equations of the first degree some years ago. We do not retain that addition.

The equations of the second degree, like the first, must be very carefully given. In dwelling on the case where the coefficient of x² converges towards zero, it will be remarked that, when the coefficient is very small, the ordinary formula would give one of the roots by the difference of two numbers almost equal; so that sufficient exactness could not be obtained without much labor. It must be shown how that inconvenience may be avoided.

It is common to meet with expressions of which the maximum or the minimum can be determined by the consideration of an equation of the second degree. We retain the study of them, especially for the benefit of those who will not have the opportunity of advancing to the general theory of maxima and minima.

The theory of the algebraic calculation of imaginary quantities, given Àpriori, may, on the contrary, be set aside without inconvenience. It is enough that the pupils know that the different powers of v-1 continually reproduce in turn one of these four values, ±1, ±v-1. We will say as much of the calculation of the algebraic values of radicals, which is of no use. The calculation of their arithmetical values will alone be demanded. In this connection will be taught the notation of fractional exponents and that of negative exponents.

The theory of numbers has taken by degrees a disproportionate development in the examinations for admission; it is of no use in practice, and, besides, constitutes in the pure mathematics a science apart.

The theory of continued fractions at first seems more useful. It is employed in the resolution of algebraic equations, and in that of the exponential equation a^x=b. But these methods are entirely unsuited to practice, and we therefore omit this theory.

The theory of series, on the contrary, claims some farther developments. Series are continually met with in practice; they give the best solutions of many questions, and it is indispensable to know in what circumstances they can be safely employed.

We have so often insisted on the necessity of teaching students to calculate, as to justify the extent of the part of the programme relating to logarithms. We have suppressed the inapplicable method of determining logarithms by continued fractions, and have substituted the employment of the series which gives the logarithm of n+1, knowing that of n. To exercise the students in the calculation of the series, they should be made to determine the logarithms of the numbers from 1 to 10, from 101 to 110, and from 10,000 to 10,010, the object of these last being to show them with what rapidity the calculation proceeds when the numbers are large; the first term of the series is then sufficient, the variations of the logarithms being sensibly proportional to the variations of the numbers, within the limits of the necessary exactness. In the logarithmic calculations, the pupils will be exercised in judging of the exactness which they may have been able to obtain: the consideration of the numerical values of the proportional parts given in the tables is quite sufficient for this purpose, and is beside the only one which can be employed in practice.

The use of the sliding rule, which is merely an application of logarithms, gives a rapid and portable means of executing approximately a great number of calculations which do not require great exactness. We desire that the use of this little instrument should be made familiar to the candidates. This is asked for by all the professors of the “School of application,” particularly those of Topography, of Artillery, of Construction, and of Applied Mechanics, who have been convinced by experience of the utility of this instrument, which has the greatest possible analogy with tables of logarithms.

Before entering on the subjects of higher algebra, it should be remembered that the reductions of the course which we have found to be so urgent, will be made chiefly on it. The general theory of equations has taken in the examinations an abnormal and improper development, not worth the time which it costs the students. We may add, that it is very rare to meet a numerical equation of a high degree requiring to be resolved, and that those who have to do this, take care not to seek its roots by the methods which they have been taught. These methods moreover are not applicable to transcendental equations, which are much more frequently found in practice.

The theory of the greatest common algebraic divisor, in its entire generality, is of no use, even in pure science, unless in the elimination between equations of any degree whatever. But this last subject being omitted, the greatest common divisor is likewise dispensed with.

It is usual in the general theory of algebraic equations to consider the derived polynomials of entire functions of x. These polynomials are in fact useful in several circumstances, and particularly in the theory of equal roots; and in analytical geometry, they serve for the discussion of curves and the determination of their tangents. But since transcendental curves are very often encountered in practice, we give in our programme the calculation of the derivatives of algebraic and fractional functions, and transcendental functions, logarithmic, exponential, and circular. This has been long called for, not only because it must be of great assistance in the teaching of analytical geometry, but also because it will facilitate the elementary study of the infinitesimal calculus.

We have not retrenched any of the general ideas on the composition of an entire polynomial by means of factors corresponding to its roots. We retain several theorems rather because they contain the germs of useful ideas than because of their practical utility, and therefore wish the examiners to restrict themselves scrupulously to the programme.

The essential point in practice is to be able to determine conveniently an incommensurable root of an algebraic or transcendental equation, when encountered. Let us consider first an algebraic equation.

All the methods which have for their object to separate the roots, or to approximate to them, begin with the substitution of the series of consecutive whole numbers, in the first member of the equation. The direct substitution becomes exceedingly complicated, when the numbers substituted become large. It may be much shortened, however, by deducing the results from one another by means of their differences, and guarding against any possibility of error, by verifying some of those results, those corresponding to the numbers easiest to substitute, such as ±10, ±20.The teacher should not fail to explain this to his pupils.

Still farther: let us suppose that we have to resolve an equation of the third degree, and that we have recognized by the preceding calculations the necessity of substituting, between the numbers 2 and 3, numbers differing by a tenth, either for the purpose of continuing to effect the separation of the roots, or to approximate nearer to a root comprised between 2 and 3.If we knew, for the result corresponding to the substitution of 2, the first, second, and third differences of the results of the new substitutions, we could thence deduce those results themselves with as much simplicity, as in the case of the whole numbers. The new third difference, for example, will be simply the thousandth part of the old third difference. We may also remark that there is no possibility of error, since, the numbers being deduced from one another, when we in this way arrive at the result of the substitution of 3, which has already been calculated, the whole work will thus be verified.

Let us suppose again that we have thus recognized that the equation has a root comprised between 2.3 and 2.4; we will approximate still nearer by substituting intermediate numbers, differing by 0.01, and employing the course just prescribed. As soon as the third differences can be neglected, the calculation will be finished at once, by the consideration of an equation of the second degree; or, if it is preferred to continue the approximations till the second differences in their turn may be neglected, the calculation will then be finished by a simple proportion.

When, in a transcendental equation f(X) = 0, we have substituted in f(X) equidistant numbers, sufficiently near to each other to allow the differences of the results to be neglected, commencing with a certain order, the 4th, for example, we may, within certain limits of x, replace the transcendental function by an algebraic and entire function of x, and thus reduce the search for the roots of f(X) = 0 to the preceding theory.

Whether the proposed equation be algebraic or transcendental, we can thus, when we have obtained one root of it with a suitable degree of exactness, continue the approximation by the method of Newton.

PROGRAMME OF ALGEBRA.

IV. TRIGONOMETRY.

In explaining the use of trigonometrical tables, the pupil must be able to tell with what degree of exactness an angle can be determined by the logarithms of any of its trigonometrical lines. The consideration of the proportional parts will be sufficient for this. It will thus be seen that if the sine determines perfectly a small angle, the degree of exactness, which may be expected from the use of that line, diminishes as the angle increases, and becomes quite insufficient in the neighborhood of 90 degrees. It is the reverse for the cosine, which may serve very well to represent an angle near 90 degrees, while it would be very inexact for small angles. We see, then, that in our applications, we should distrust those formulas which give an angle by its sine or cosine. The tangent being alone exempt from these difficulties, we should seek, as far as possible, to resolve all questions by means of it. Thus, let us suppose that we know the hypothenuse and one of the sides of a right-angled triangle, the direct determination of the included angle will be given by a cosine, which will be wanting in exactness if the hypothenuse of the triangle does not differ much from the given side. In that case we should begin by calculating the third side, and then use it with the first side to determine the desired angle by means of its tangent. When two sides of a triangle and the included angle are given, the tangent of the half difference of the desired angles may be calculated with advantage; but we may also separately determine the tangent of each of them. When the three sides of a triangle are given, the best formula for calculating an angle, and the only one never at fault, is that which gives the tangent of half of it.

The surveying for plans, taught in the course of Geometry, employing only graphical methods of calculation, did not need any more accurate instruments than the chain and the graphometer; but now that trigonometry furnishes more accurate methods of calculation, the measurements on the ground require more precision. Hence the requirement for the pupil to measure carefully a base, to use telescopes, verniers, etc., and to make the necessary calculations, the ground being still considered as plane. But as these slow and laborious methods can be employed for only the principal points of the survey, the more expeditious means of the plane-table and compass will be used for the details.

In spherical trigonometry, all that will be needed in geodesy should be learned before admission to the school, so that the subject will not need to be again taken up. We have specially inscribed in the programme the relations between the angles and sides of a right-angled triangle, which must be known by the students; they are those which occur in practice. In tracing the course to be pursued in the resolution of the three cases of any triangles, we have indicated that which is in fact employed in the applications, and which is the most convenient. As to the rest, ambiguous cases never occur in practice, and therefore we should take care not to speak of them to learners.

In surveying, spherical trigonometry will now allow us to consider cases in which the signals are not all in the same plane, and to operate on uneven ground, obtain its projection on the plane of the horizon, and at the same time determine differences of level.

It may be remarked that Descriptive Geometry might supply the place of spherical trigonometry by a graphical construction, but the degree of exactitude of the differences of level thus obtained would be insufficient.

“And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew,

That one small head could carry all he knew.”

The cadets were all “boys” to him, and his kind face was long remembered. In the other end of this room, or in the next, was seen his acting assistant, Stephen H. Long, then a young lieutenant of engineers; since distinguished as a traveler, an engineer, and a man of science. The text-book used was “Hutton’s Mathematics,” and at that time the best to be had. Mr. Hutton had been a professor at Woolwich, England, and his treatises were plain, simple, easily understood, and therefore well adapted to beginners. It was, however, very deficient both in extent and analysis. It was a good text-book then, for there were no cadets trained to pursue deeper or more analytical works. With Hutton’s Mathematics, Enfield’s Philosophy, and plain right-lined drawing, and nothing which could be called engineering, did the cadets of the Academy get along, without roll, classification, or graduation, till the close of 1816.

In August, 1817, as we have said, Colonel Thayer became superintendent at West Point; and in the course of the next four or five years the Academy passed through the great changes which brought it from the inchoate to the crystallized state in which it now appears. The most important of these changes relate to scientific culture; and we shall best describe them by narrating the actual work the classes then pursued, and the change of text-books. The first step was taken, as we have seen, in March, 1816, by the regulations of Mr. Crawford, which required classification, a course of studies, and annual examinations. Some steps towards these were taken in 1816, but very imperfectly. In 1817 the system of classification was first systematically begun. Claude Crozet, a French officer under Napoleon, and a pupil of the Polytechnic School, was appointed professor of engineering, in March, 1817. The annual examination coming on in June, the course of studies in his department did not regularly commence till September, and the second or junior class7 of 1817-’18 was the first class which commenced thoroughly the severe and complete course of studies at West Point. The labors of that class in the years 1818 and 1819 may have been equaled, but certainly have not been surpassed. It was not a brilliant class, but its labors were not the less on that account. It had not merely to pass over the plain turnpike road of science which is now made so easy to those who follow; but, like the pioneers of an army, had to cut down the obstructions, make their own bridges, and to no small extent, furnish their own munitions. Let us look into the class-room of 1817, as Professor Crozet advances to instruct those young men in studies, which were not only new to them, but entirely unheard of, and in which the language to which they were born and bred furnished not a single text-book. Professor Crozet was to teach engineering; but when he met the class, he found not one of them fit to learn engineering. These were branches of science, and its affiliations, essentially necessary to engineering, which they had never been taught. What was he to do? All he could do obviously was to supply these preliminary studies before he could commence in his own department. In other words, he must begin by becoming a teacher of mathematics, and drawing. The surprise of the French engineer instructed in the Polytechnique may well be imagined when he commenced giving his class certain problems and instructions, which not one of them could comprehend or perform. Among these preliminary studies was Descriptive Geometry, not an original and distinct science, but which by projecting geometrical figures and problems on co-ordinate planes, gave a more facile and practical mode of representing (asits name implies,) as well as solving many geometrical and practical problems. This, too, required an accurate knowledge of mathematical and perspective drawing, and its various minor but important arts. We doubt whether at that time more than a dozen or two professors of science in this country knew there was such a thing; certainly they never taught it, and equally certain, there was not a text-book in the English language. Perhaps this is not surprising, when we reflect, that this new application of geometry was scarcely thirty years old. Monge, a French savans, was, we believe, the author of this system, about the beginning of the French Revolution. Crozet meant to begin with Descriptive Geometry, but fortunately, the class was not in the last year of the course (inwhich engineering has recently been taught,) and could spare some time for mere mathematics. But, a new difficulty arose. There was no text-book in English, and none to be had just then in French. Geometry is not a thing to be taught orally. What is to be done? It was here at this precise time that Crozet, by aid of the carpenter and painter, introduced the blackboard and chalk. It is a very simple thing, and so is every thing which is useful; but we know of no mere adjunct of teaching, so useful as the blackboard. To professor Crozet, so far as we know, is due the introduction of this simple and useful machine. He found it, with many other things, far superior to the English methods in the Polytechnic of France.

We now see Crozet with his blackboard before him, chalk in hand, and animated, intellectual face, about to teach his class a new science, without a text-book. Again he meets a new difficulty. He does not more than half understand the American language. This difficulty is only to be overcome by practice. With extreme difficulty he makes himself understood. With extreme difficulty his class comprehend that two planes at right-angles with one another are to be understood on the same surface of the blackboard on which are represented two different projections of the same object. But, at last it is done. The Professor labors with inexhaustible patience, and the pupils are pleased to receive into their minds entirely new ideas. The first problems are drawn and demonstrated on the blackboard, by the Professor; then drawn and demonstrated by the pupils, and then accurately copied into permanent drawings; and thus this class were taught in the most important and valuable method of imparting true knowledge, which has been given to mankind since the days of Socrates. Fortunately, professor Crozet had brought with him the complete drawings of the French Polytechnique, so that he was not, in this particular, obliged to depend upon himself. The path of his instruction soon became easier, and then this class completed their course in drawing, mathematics, and Engineering.

In the study of Natural Philosophy and Mechanics, the way was scarcely less difficult. We have already said, that Enfield’s Philosophy was the first book on that subject. But this was not enough. Professor Mansfield looked around in vain for any suitable book on Mechanics. At last, Gregory’s Mechanics was adopted. It was a book without any analysis, and probably written only for scientific men. Yet, it was the best to be had. For several years after, this work still remained the best book on Mechanics. Whether the class who first studied its mysterious pages acquired as clear and extensive ideas of the subject as those who have since passed over smoother roads, may be doubtful. It is certain they had more arduous labors. We have said there was no text-book on engineering, as a science. When the class which had commenced Descriptive Geometry, with professor Crozet, (then the second or the junior class,) had become the first class, they were instructed in engineering by drawings from oral teaching, on the blackboard. The various modes of laying out fortifications, of bridging, of defiling, of materials, ordnance, &c., were taught by professor Crozet. For several years no text-book in engineering was found. It was not till 1823 that a French treatise, entitled the Science of War and Fortication, was translated by Major O’Connor, and for several years used as a text-book. It will be seen that the class which, in 1817, 1818, and 1819, commenced the new culture and discipline of West Point, had an arduous and difficult task. It is, notwithstanding, quite probable, that this severe exercise of the mind, in making paths for itself, where there are no guide-posts on the way, no regal road, is a better discipline than that furnished by the more easy and systematic methods.

Perhaps no one step taken at West Point, has contributed so much to intellectual culture as the Merit-Roll. The effect at the Military Academy is totally different from what it would be at any civil institution. For there it determines rank, which is the great object of military men. Forty young men may be commissioned on the same day to the same grade, but through all their after life, even when they return to civil life, the distinctions of the merit-roll will follow them, and be counted for or against them. In the very first day of their commissioned service, the distinction is a practical one, for there are great and practical advantages in certain arms of the service over others. Thus the engineer officer, without any actual care of men, or responsibility for any movements, and almost always stationed at comfortable posts, has great advantages over other arms. The Artillery has advantages over the Infantry. Thus the cadet, commissioned from West Point, has determined for himself, by his position on the merit-roll, not only his rank in the army, but almost his position in human life. The merit-roll, as it now exists, graduated in all departments, and summed up at the close of the course, was not adopted at once, but was the work of several years.

In February, 1818, the superintendent of the Academy was directed by the Secretary at War to publish in the Army Register the “names of cadets who are distinguished for attainments, and meritorious conduct, not exceeding five in each class, specifying the studies in which they may excel.”

We well recollect with what excitement and interest this communication was received by the cadets of that day, especially by those who thought themselves within the probabilities of that distinction. It unquestionably stimulated most of the young men to much greater exertions than they would otherwise have made. In a few months after, the merit-roll was fully established in the classes, and the rank of the graduating cadets determined by it.

There has been much discussion, and no small doubt, as to the real effects of emulation. There is undoubtedly a bad sense, and a bad effect attached to that term. But is that a necessary consequence of the merit-roll? Is not the merit-roll adopted, so far as it can be ascertained, in all departments of human life? Who would risk himself with an ignorant engineer, if he could get a skilled one? Who would employ a poor clerk if he could get a good one? The objection made to emulation is that it excites wrong motives. However this may be, and however casuists may regard it, it is quite certain that the merit-roll is the strongest stimulant to intellectual exertion which can be presented to young men. Nor can we perceive, after much observation on its effect, that it has impaired the purely moral motives of action, or excited evil passions, to be remembered in after life. At West Point all the moral actions which are visible and tangible are brought within the scale of the merit-roll, and often the fate of a young man is determined far more by his standing in conduct, than in studies.

II. STUDY, DISCIPLINE, AND FRUITS.

Having thus sketched the historical progress of the Academy in the path of scientific culture, it remains for us to state what it is; what it has done; and what men have conducted it.

Without entering into minute details, we shall very briefly state the present methods of study and discipline. The leading studies in their order are Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Mechanics, Astronomy, Engineering, Chemistry, French, Tactics, Artillery Practice, Mineralogy, Ethics, and History. This course is wholly scientific, the practical part being adapted strictly to military purposes. In the early period of the institution, some attempt was made to introduce the classics, but it was found impracticable, with the limited time allowed the cadets. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any institution can have more than one tone. All branches of human learning may be embraced in the proper schedule of university instruction; but has any university given equal attention to all branches of education? What are called colleges in our country, all aim at fitting young men for the civil professions—Law, Medicine, and Theology. They therefore make the classics the principal branch of study, and are right, since Law, Medicine, and Theology have their foundation deep laid in the classic ages. Literature also is a part of professional knowledge, necessary to adorn and illustrate the history and theory of professional science. Hence, in these lines of instruction specially have run the studies of the college, and from these is derived the tone of college education. The object of the Military Academy was totally different. It was not civil, but martial life, for which the young men were fitting. It was neither a metaphysical discussion, nor a hair-splitting argument on the law, in which they were expected to excel. They were to learn the sterner arguments of the battle-field; to arrange squadrons for the hardy fight; to acquire that profound knowledge of the science and materials of nature, which should fit them for the complicated art of war; to defend and attack cities; to bridge rivers; to make roads; to provide armaments; to arrange munitions; to understand the topography of countries; and to foresee and provide all the resources necessary to national defense. This was the object of the Military Academy, and to that one end it was adapted. The method of education may be happily stated under the heads of Studies, Physical and Moral Discipline, and of Military Exercises.

1. The subjects and method of study we have already mentioned; Mathematical, Philosophical, Mechanical, Chemical, Military, and French, the military language. These being the chief topics of study, the students and the time were suitably divided into classes and hours. There are four classes, occupying four years, as usual in colleges. There are ten months of study, the intermission being in the hot months of July and August, when only military studies and exercises are pursued. The studies of a day are necessarily modified, by the introduction of military exercises which consume much time. The regular study hours (which include also the recitations,) are from 8 A.M. to 1 P.M., and from 2 P.M. to 4 P.M., making seven hours of study and recitations. Generally four hours more are consumed in military exercise and discipline, being the hours before breakfast, and after 4 P.M. Thus eleven hours are generally occupied either in study or exercises. The evening also after dark, is devoted to study in so far that with occasional exceptions, the cadets are required to be in the rooms. In this division of time we find a continual alternation of study and exercise; leaving the least possible time for idleness, or mere amusement. Indeed, the problem of education is to find the maximum of development, with the minimum of idleness. To this should be added, that the development should be co-relatively, intellectual, physical, and moral.8 It is not merely ignorance, but unequal development, which is the great misfortune of mankind. How many great and glorious intellects have been lost, because there were no counter-balances to the force which, inclined in only one direction, carried them off into a wilderness of fruitless objects!

In the course of studies pursued at West Point, the main feature is the method of study. We can give an idea of this in a few words. The very first thing done at West Point is to recognize the fact, that intellects are unequal; in other words, that of a given number of young men, commencing a severe and elaborate course of studies, there will be some who can not endure it, and can not get through; and others, who while they will come up to the requisites for graduation, can not equal a third class, who are capable and ambitious of receiving the highest style of education. This recognition is effected thus: a class enters the Academy, we will say eighty in number. This class enters on the 1st of September; and on the 1st of January there is a semi-annual examination. This four months of study by that class is regarded as a period of probation, which will furnish some test of the abilities of its several members. When the January examination is held, some are found deficient, and they are at once discarded. Then the remaining class are numbered, according to what is then their apparent merit, and they are divided into sections of from fifteen to twenty each; those highest on the roll being placed in the first section; those next in the second, &c. Usually there are four of these sections. The professor usually teaches the first section; his assistant the second, and so on. It is obviously a decided advantage to be in the first section, and there is usually a struggle to get there. But, a cadet may change his position in his class, at any time, by his own efforts. This he can only do, however, by more strenuous efforts. Then, if he be in the second section, he may at the end of the year be found to have a higher aggregate of good marks in study and conduct than some of those in the first section. In that case he will be transferred. Thus the ambition of the student has always placed before it the possibility of higher class rank, and if his talents and industry are capable of it, he will attain it.

The method of study at West Point, which in all institutions is the important point, is the rigidly demonstrative, in those studies which admit of it, and the positively practical in those which do not. The course of studies requires this, if the subjects of study are to be thoroughly understood. There is little of the purely metaphysical or transcendental known or pursued at West Point. No abstract speculations or merely theoretical inquiries occupy their minds. It is the actually knowing, and doing, in which they are engaged. As far as can be made practically useful, the oral method is pursued. In mathematical and mechanical, engineering and tactical studies, this is largely the case. The blackboard, we have said, was first introduced into this country by Professor Crozet, at West Point. How largely this is used in all institutions of education now, our readers well know. It has proved one of the most efficient means of instruction at West Point. The student of the mathematical section, for example, begins with a text-book on Algebra, in his hand; but, it is on the blackboard where the workings of his mind are chiefly exhibited. He learns what he can from the book, but, on the blackboard the professor makes him trace out what he has done, not merely by telling what he knows, but what he don’t know; detects his weak place, and forces his mind (sofar as such force is possible,) to think, and think rightly on the subject before him. This thinking, we need not tell experienced teachers, is the great thing which education is to teach. If a student can not, or will not think studiously and industriously, he will not long remain at West Point. There is not, as in civil colleges, the great fallow field of poetry, history, and metaphysics, in which he may show his classical professor that he has acquired rich things, although ignorant of mathematics. It will not do to say that he has wandered with Greeks and Romans around the ruins of Troy, or by the waters of Babel. There is no such compensating principle in the system at West Point. The cadet must study what is set before him; must study it hard; must think upon it, and discipline his mind to systematic modes of thought.

2. This leads us to the Specific Discipline of the Academy. This is partially included in what we have already said. The intellectual discipline is mainly maintained by the method of study; but there is a grand and perfect system of discipline, which we may briefly describe. The term DISCIPLINE is derived from disciples, discipulus, and means originally teaching of knowledge; but this is not all, nor entirely its modern sense. Discipline is training in knowledge and virtue, in order and diligence, in good conduct, and good habits. To do this requires a control of the body as well as mind; of food and raiment; of time and exercise; as well as the imparting of facts and ideas. It was in the former sense rather than of the latter, that the word EDUCATION, (tolead forth,) was understood among the ancients, and so far as they went they were right. It was this discipline in virtue, temperance, courage, fortitude, and self-denial, which was taught in the days of Persian Cyrus, and Greek Leonidas. It was adopted among the early Christians; but, Cowper well said:—

Nothing can be more certain than the decline of “discipline” in modern civil institutions. “Colleges and Halls” advertise a much enlarged course of studies; they call to their aid the most learned professors; and they proclaim “all the modern improvement,” and yet it is quite certain, that a pupil can walk for years their learned halls, and at last receive the honors of graduation with a very small share of either learning, diligence, or virtue. Civil institutions may be most excellent for all, who either by early care or natural inclination are willing to use their opportunities for their intellectual or moral advancement. Nay, more, all open irregularities will be corrected, and all possible means afforded for spiritual improvement. But there are two things impossible to overcome—the popular and almost universal license allowed youth, (under the name of freedom) and the total want of any ultimate power to restrain it. These stand directly in the way of thorough discipline. At a Government Military Institution, this is directly reversed. The very first thing taught is positive obedience. The cadet can not be a week at West Point without knowing that he can not govern himself, but must be governed by others. If he is either not fit or not willing, the faculty meet the case in short and decisive language: “If you are either unable or unwilling to pursue the course of study and discipline, we direct you must instantly go. There are plenty more worthy to fill your place.” There is, then, no alternative for the cadet but to go forward, and exert himself to the utmost, or not to go at all. There can be no loitering by the way, to slumber in idleness, or waste in dissipation, or pursue the pleasures of literature. There is no doubt that this stern and constant discipline is the great merit of West Point. It acts on the whole conduct and character. We have already said, that the class-standing determined by the merit-roll, determined their position relatively, and their rank in the army, and by consequence, great distinctions and differences in after life.

Let us see how this merit-roll is made up. The first thing done is to mark each cadet with a figure (having relation to an agreed scale of numbers,) for every act done or undone, in study, conduct, drill, attention, &c. The second is to agree upon the relative values of each study, conduct, &c., in aggregating the whole positive or negative performance of a cadet, in his whole course at West Point. The summation of these for any one year gives his class-standing for that year, and the summation for the whole course gives his standing at the time of graduation, and his rank in the army.

Formerly, and we believe yet, the mode of marking and summing up for standing, was this. Each professor or teacher marked for one performance one of seven marks, from -3 to +3.This being purely artificial may be changed. But it is in this way the marking is made. Then in regard to relative values of study and conduct, the scale formerly was:—

To obtain 2,100, the aggregate, a cadet must never have failed in a recitation, or been absent from a military duty, or derelict in the least particular. This most rarely if ever happens. Not to fall short more than 100, is evidence of very high standing.

It is evident, that under this system, emulation is highly excited, and, in fact, there must be a constant, unremitting effort to graduate at all. The general result is, that not more than one-half of all appointed are graduates. At the first semi-annual examination, many drop off; several more at the end of the first year, and more at the end of the second. Nearly all who survive the second year are graduated.

The only remaining point, peculiar to the system at West Point, is that of Military Exercises. As a Military Institution, this is a necessity, but it has also a great advantage as a means of Physical Education. This is a kind of education too much neglected, and for which civil colleges afford little opportunity, and no encouragement. The ordinary games, amusements, and walks in the field are relied upon to afford development to the body, and the natural tastes the only guide. So thought not Persian statesmen, Greek Philosopher, or Roman Senator. In contrast, a systematic education of the body was a principle, and a practice, with all the civilized nations of antiquity. There was a constant attention to this in the training of youth; and the Olympian Games, the Gymnastic Exercises, and the Gladiatorial Shows, all had reference to this principle. If heathen nations could thus wisely attend to the healthy development of their bodies, can Christian people safely neglect it? There is no question that the Christian law of temperance, daily labor, good temper and amiable dispositions will do much to preserve health and strength. The health of the mind goes far to make the health of the body; but we must recollect that all students, properly so called—men who are set apart for the cultivation of learning and science—the savans of a country, are cut off at the very beginning, from that daily labor of the body, which in the dawn of human history was declared to be the necessity of man’s existence. There is, therefore, a positive need of supplying by some system of salutary exercises, the place of that labor in which the farmer and mechanic are constantly exercised. What shall it be? Our common classical institutions have left this almost entirely to the student’s own choice. Several hours of the day are left to the student to employ as he pleases. Does not experience prove, that he is quite as apt to employ this in novel reading, or playing cards, or visiting, or (inthe case of an ambitious pupil,) in studying or reading the classics, as in any systematic method of exercise? Let the early dead of consumption, the victims of dissipation, and the unhappy subjects of chronic diseases, teach the living, that education consists not merely in spurring the mind on to intellectual feats, however admirable. The bird soars through the mid-heavens, but soars on the strength of his wings; and if he had the soul of Socrates, would still fall, when they are exhausted.

The military exercises, at West Point, accomplish some great results. They give an admirable exercise to the body, and they occupy time which might be wasted, and they compel the cadets to give up late night studies. Let us begin with the last. Nothing is more common among the ambitious students of colleges, than to sit up late at night. To burn the midnight oil, in order to accompany every thought in the realms of Plato, or fight with Hector on the plains of Troy, or pursue the phantom of metaphysics, or the genius of literature through the bright worlds of fiction, is the common boast of scholars. They have little thought, till too late, that life was shortened, and happiness impaired, by every hour taken from the natural period of rest. At West Point this evil is avoided, not so much by force of command, as by that of wise arrangements. At the dawn of day, even in the shortest days, the shrill fife and rolling drum summon the cadet to his morning duties, and with the exception of the hours of meals, there is one incessant pressure upon him for bodily and intellectual labor, till ten at night. The results of this is, that when the hour of retirement comes, he must have more than human strength, who is not ready and willing to lie down and sleep. There are, of course, exceptions; but, at West Point, they are rare. The lights are put out at 10 o’clock, and the weary student is ready to retire. Thus, the system of discipline at the Military Academy at once strengthens the body, stimulates ambition, prevents idleness, and compels the mind to pursue the objects of reason, rather than the charms of imagination.

Having thus traced very briefly the history, studies, and discipline of West Point, it is only just to say something upon the fruits it has produced. These are divided naturally into two classes; the work of the Professors, and the performance of Graduates. The former is little noticed in the accounts of our colleges, except in the reputation of some distinguished men; but the latter, (the divines, lawyers, and statesmen who have graduated,) make the glory and the ornament of the triennial catalogue. Let us see if something has not been produced by West Point, which, in regard to the peculiar objects and teaching of the Academy, may bear a favorable comparison with the catalogue of any institution for the last half century. We do not mean in regard to the learned professions, for if West Point had excelled in these departments, it would have utterly failed in those for which it was made. But, we mean in the great field of science and of usefulness. First, let us look at some of the fruits produced by its professors, especially in the production of text-books. In the history of instruction at West Point, we have stated the total absence in the beginning, of text-books on some subjects, and the unfitness of those on others, even the common studies of Mathematics. The first text-book on Descriptive Geometry, published in America, and we believe, the English language, was prepared by Professor Crozet; but, as he then understood our language imperfectly, and had little taste for authorship, it was soon supplanted, by a complete treatise prepared by Professor Davies. On that subject, as on the subject of Engineering, there was no systematic treatise; and for a time, West Point got along by oral teaching, and such collateral aid as could be had. The utter deficiency of suitable books may be known by the fact, that the first really tolerable text-books on mathematics were translations of La Croix, Bourdon, Biot, &c., French authors. The French methods of writing and teaching science are, on most topics, the best. Their style is clear and analytical. The English treatises are clumsy, being what is called in literature, elliptical, having vacancies in the reasoning, to be supplied by the student. The next great and permanent improvement in books, were the mathematical works of Professor Davies, a graduate of 1815, when the Academy was yet in a chrysalis state; he was several years a teacher before he conceived the idea of supplying a new series of mathematical text-books. His first plan was to adopt the best French works as a basis, and modify them, so as to be adapted to the American course of instruction. In this manner were prepared “Davies’ Legendre,” (Geometry,) and subsequently “Davies’ Bourdon,” (Algebra.) Other treatises were prepared on his own plan, and thus, for many years, Professor Davies pursued the quiet and laborious task (independent of other avocations,) of preparing an entire course of mathematical text-books. In time he modified these again, so as to fit them for the best colleges, and the higher schools. From the smallest mental arithmetic, to the profoundest treatise on the Calculus, he has produced clear and admirable text-books on every topic of mathematical studies. Many other good books have been prepared by professors in colleges, but there is no part of the United States in which some one of Davies’ works is not taught in schools and colleges. Gradually, the civil institutions have been, in some degree, brought up to the standard of West Point, in mathematical studies.

In more recent years, Professor Bartlett has published his treatise on Optics; Professor Church, on the Calculus, and Professor Mahan, on Field Fortification, and a treatise on Civil Engineering. Various other works on military subjects have been contributed to the stock of knowledge, by graduates of the Academy.9

Thus have the graduates of West Point, by disseminating in textbooks, and teaching the higher knowledge, and better methods pursued there, in fact, and beyond dispute, elevated the entire standard of education in this country. Contrast, for example, the text-books of Day, Hutton, Enfield, Gregory, &c., which were the only ones to be had on mathematical science in 1818, with those now in use at West Point, New Haven, or Princeton. Contrast the methods of study before the blackboard, the art of drawing, the system of rigid demonstration, and of exact scales of merit were introduced, with those now in use in the higher schools of science, and we shall be satisfied that West Point has done a great and most useful work in elevating the standard of education. This is one fruit of its production, which has been altogether too lightly estimated. If it be of importance to increase the number of blades of grass, it is of much more importance to increase the number of minds fitted to enjoy the works of God, and use beneficially the gifts with which he has intrusted them.

A more obvious and commonly remarked fruit of West Point, is the men, laboring in their vocations, which it has produced. It is impossible here, (though it would be a labor of love,) to note the individual examples of merit and usefulness, among those whom West Point has sent into the service of their country. We are here limited rather to a statement of general results. It may be done briefly; and since we have seen no Register later than 1850, we must deal in round numbers. These, however, will approximate the precise facts. They are there statistically:—

Numbers have resigned, and died young, not above enumerated, and numbers of these also have died in the civil service. We have made this classification to show how largely West Point has contributed to education, civil engineering, and the professions. These were not the direct objects of the Academy; but, when long years of peace presented no duties but that of the garrison, and no glory to the profession of arms, it was natural and proper for active and ambitious young men to seek honor and usefulness in other pursuits. Nor did the government discourage this, for it foresaw what has happened, that these young men, so highly educated in science, would diffuse this knowledge throughout the country; elevate the standard of education, and be ready when their country needed their services. This has happened. Abetter knowledge of the exact sciences has been carried into the colleges; the railroads and canals have been built by engineers ready furnished by the government; and now when half a million of men have been suddenly called to war, they have been largely officered by the graduates of West Point. Here we may briefly allude to the most grave fact which has been urged against the Military Academy. The best officers of the rebel army were educated there. Why is this? Is there a want of sound morals? or, is loyalty no virtue there? Neither. A part, and a part only10 of the graduates born and grown up in the south, have gone with their friends, families, and connections, into the rebel service. This was on account of social ties, and had no more to do with West Point, than had other rebels from Harvard, or Yale, with those institutions. The noticeable fact is that they were educated at the government expense, and therefore under peculiar obligations to the country. But we find a parallel in the numerous officers of the state, as well as of the army and navy, who had been honored and rewarded at the public expense, but who thought it no shame to betray their country, and conspire against its life. We in vain attempt to account for such crimes, except upon the principle of common depravity, of which history has furnished similar examples in all ages of the world.

We have come to the end of the work we proposed. The rise, progress, and fruits of the Military Academy, we have briefly, and, we trust, justly delineated. Certainly, we have no end to serve, no prejudice to gratify. We knew the Academy in its early and immature period. We have seen it grow up to usefulness and honor. We see its graduates taking their places among those who have well served their country, and well deserved its laurels. In this we are glad. But our memory is filled with other images. We see West Point, in the now lengthening shadows of time. We seem to see those with whom we studied freshly present, as they walk the green plain, or sit before the class, or strive to teach our dull and inattentive minds. They were men worth remembering, and when, in after times, we became their friends, rather than their pupils, still more pleasant memories gathered around them. We seem to see the venerable Ellicott, like Goldsmith’s schoolmaster, alike full of learning, and of kindly humor; the placid and intellectual expression of Mansfield, whose abstracted looks seemed to be searching the higher philosophy; the courtly and dignified Thayer, whose graceful manners and attractive conversation can not be forgotten by any who knew him; and the amiable Courtnay, who though of later date, will long be remembered. He left the world in doubt, whether he was the better scholar or the better man.11

Of these, and of those like them, do we think, when we think of West Point. Nor of those alone; the place itself, where nature delights in the sublime and beautiful, rises before us. No imagination is necessary to clothe it with the hues of poetry; no books to recall the lost passages of history; no labored eulogy to bring up the memories of the dead. You can no more forget them, than you can the Pilgrims, when standing by the rock of Plymouth. Yon gray and moss-covered ruin was once the fortress of the Revolution. Yon scarcely perceptible pile of stones marks the spot where its soldiers were hutted in the winter. Yon slightly raised turf, beneath the dark shades of the cedar, was his grave, and soon, perhaps even now, that slight memorial will be gone forever. Yon little valley under the shadows of the mountain, recalls the illustrious name of Washington. Yon blue mountain-top tells of the beacon fires he lit. All around are memories; all around are sacred spots. If the Greek remembers Marathon; if the Jew lingers at Jerusalem, or the Christian pilgrim grows warm at Bethlehem, so should the American remember West Point; linger round the ruins of Fort Put, and gaze with delight on the blue summit of Beacon Hill.

DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTION AT WEST POINT.

1. Down to 1802, the instruction of the Cadets attached to the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers stationed at West Point, according to Act of Congress (May 7th, which was all that repeated recommendations of Washington and other experienced officers could obtain), was confined to military drill and practical exercises in common with other members of the Corps; but as that Corps was made up of the scientific officers of the army, and as military works were in construction under their plans and superintendence, these exercises were of great practical value, and the appointment of these Cadets in 1794, and their gathering at West Point, may be regarded as the nucleus of the Military Academy.

2. The Military Academy, established with that name, by Act of March 16, 1802, in pursuance of a Bill reported in 1800, by the Committee of Defense in the House of Representatives, of which Harrison Gray Otis was chairman, and to which an elaborate report of the Secretary of War (James McHenry, of Maryland), had been referred—consisted of the Corps of Engineers, which by the Act was organized distinct from that of Artillery, and could not exceed in officers and cadets, twenty members. The Corps was stationed at West Point, and its officers and cadets were subject to duty in such places as the President should direct. The principal engineer was made superintendent, and down to 1808 he was instructor in fortifications, field-works, and the use of instruments. Two officers of the rank of captain, appointed without previous military experience, but with special reference to their knowledge of mathematics, gave instruction in that branch, “one in the line of geometrical, and the other of algebraic demonstration.”

In 1803, two teacherships—one of the French language and the other of Drawing, was attached to the Corps of Engineers, and in 1804, F. De Masson was appointed to discharge the duties of both.

In 1808, the basis of the Military Academy, so far as related to the number of Cadets, was enlarged by the addition of two for each new company of Infantry, Riflemen, and Artillery, added to the military force; and the number in the Act of 1812, is limited to 250, which with the ten originally attached to the Corps of Engineers, fixed the strength of the Cadets at 260.

By the Act of April 29, 1812, the Corps of Engineers was enlarged, and was again constituted the Military Academy, and in addition to the teacher of the French language, and Drawing, provided in Act of Feb. 28, 1803, one Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy; one Professor of Mathematics; one Professor of Engineering in all its branches; and for each an Assistant Professor taken from the most prominent characters of the officers or cadets, are provided for; and for the purposes of military instruction, it is ordered that the students shall be arranged into companies and officered from their own members, to be taught all the duties of a private, non-commissioned officer, and officer; and for instruction in all matters incident to a regular camp, shall go into camp for at least three months of each year, and erecting buildings and providing apparatus, library, and all necessary implements, the sum of $25,000 is appropriated. By this act the minimum of age is fixed at 14, and the literary qualifications of candidates on entering are to be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic.

III. CONDITION IN 1871.

I. GOVERNMENT AND ORGANIZATION.12

A military officer, not usually below the rank of colonel, is appointed by the President of the United States as superintendent of the Academy, who has supreme local control over both the studies and discipline of the institution. He renders all prescribed returns, and addresses his communications to the inspector.

The inspector of the Academy is an officer of rank in the army named by the Secretary of War, who has his residence at Washington, and through whom all general orders relating to the Academy are transmitted to the superintendent at West Point. He makes an inspection of the Academy at least once in each year.13

The general staff of the Academy consists of an adjutant, a quartermaster, a treasurer, one surgeon, and two assistant surgeons.

Although the system of the Academy as regards the training of the cadets both in and out of study is peculiarly and rigidly military, the staff of instruction is separate from the staff of discipline.

Military Staff.

The cadets are organized into a battalion of four companies.

The commandant of cadets, usually not under the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, exercises the immediate command of the battalion. He is also, ex officio, principal instructor in infantry, artillery, and cavalry tactics (signifying drill).

Under the commandant are six assistant instructors of tactics, viz.—one for artillery; two for infantry; one for cavalry; one for artillery and infantry; one for infantry and cavalry. The four senior of these officers command the four cadet companies respectively; the two junior officers being always available to perform the routine duties of the others in case of absence. The assistant instructors must be officers of the army.

The battalion is provided with a full complement of cadet officers, and non-commissioned officers, who are appointed by the superintendent from a list submitted by the commandant of cadets.

To each company are appointed

The Council of Military Education consists of the Duke of Cambridge, Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, President; Major-General W.C.E. Napier, Vice-President; Major-General Sir Fred. Abbott, of the Royal Engineers; Col. Pocklington and Col. Hamley, of the Royal Artillery; Rev. Canon Moseley, civilian; and Capt. Greentree, Secretary.

EXAMINATIONS FOR COMMISSIONS AND PROMOTIONS.

I. EXAMINATIONS FOR DIRECT COMMISSIONS.

HISTORICAL NOTICE.

Previously to the year 1849, no educational qualifications were required as a condition of obtaining a commission, except from officers appointed to the scientific corps—admission to which could only be obtained by passing through the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich—and from the small proportion of officers, scarcely amounting, at that time, to one sixth of the whole number annually obtaining commissions, who entered the other branches of the service from the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Examinations for admission to the army generally were first instituted by the Duke of Wellington, when Commander-in-Chief, in 1849. The examination, in addition to general subjects of elementary education, included the professional subject of fortification, in which the candidate was required to have read some easy work on the subject, and to have received some instruction in drawing. This requirement was subsequently somewhat modified; and the knowledge of fortification afterward exacted from a candidate was, “to be able to trace upon paper, in presence of the examiners, a front of fortification according to Vauban’s first system, and also the profile of a rampart and parapet.” In other subjects, modifications were also introduced; but the general character of the examinations remained much the same as originally established, and the regulations introduced by the Duke of Wellington, in 1849, continued substantially in force, until the general revision of the system of military education, which took place in 1857. It appears, however, from the evidence given by Lord Panmure, before the Royal Commission on the Purchase System, that, during the Crimean war, the stringency of the examinations was very much relaxed.

The examinations were held at Sandhurst by the professors of the College, in the presence of the Lieutenant-Governor, and were conducted to a great extent viv voce. The Select Committee of the House of Commons on Sandhurst (1855) did not make any recommendation in regard to these examinations, but stated in their report that in the only branch of the examination which was of a military character, namely, fortification, the knowledge required would easily be mastered in a week. The character of the examination, however, appears to have been very generally regarded with dissatisfaction. Mr. Sidney Herbert, when Secretary at War, in 1854, criticised it severely, as being “too technical, too limited, and within its limits too severe,” and as leading necessarily to a candidate cramming up a few books which happened to be in use at Sandhurst, without affording any test of general education. He contemplated at that time a revision of the examinations, and the institution of a special board of examiners, in place of the Sandhurst professors, for the purpose of conducting them; and the Treasury, in connection with this subject, suggested that the machinery proposed for the object in view should be combined, as far as practicable, with that about to be established for examining candidates for the Civil Service.

The outbreak of the Crimean war prevented Mr. Sidney Herbert’s proposals, which were connected with a general plan for the instruction of officers, from being carried into effect; and in 1856, Lord Panmure, before the Purchase System Commission, spoke of the defects of the existing examinations in nearly the same terms as those used by Mr. Herbert in 1854. After stating that they led to a system of cramming up particular books, he laid down the principle that the examination “should be such as young men may be supposed capable of passing without having any particular professional education. It ought to be upon general subjects, such as a young man ought to become acquainted with during his passage through any high educational establishment in this country.”

The various schemes for the reorganization of military education brought under the notice of Lord Panmure, at the end of 1856, proposed improvements in the system of examinations for admission to the army; and nearly all the authorities consulted on the subject at that time appear to have concurred in the opinion that the examinations should be strictly non-professional, and should be confined to requiring proof on the part of the candidates of a knowledge of the ordinary subjects of liberal education. The commissioners appointed in the same year to consider the training of officers for the scientific corps also recommended that the examination of candidates for commissions, who did not pass through a military college, should be of a general, and not of a special, character.

The Council of Military Education, on their appointment, in April, 1857, were instructed “to revise the whole system of examination for direct appointments to the army,” which is at present very defective; and this subject was, in fact, the first of those referred to in their instructions which they were directed to take into consideration. After consultation with the head masters of some of the chief public schools of the country, with the view of ascertaining the amount of knowledge which might fairly be expected from young men of 17, the Council proposed a scheme of examination based on the fundamental principle that the examination should be entirely non-professional, and confined to subjects which form the course of ordinary liberal education at civil schools. Regulations founded upon the proposal of the Council were issued on the 1st of August, 1857, and it was announced that they would come into operation at the beginning of 1858. These regulations were subsequently modified in some of their details, even before the first examination was held under the new system; further modifications have been from time to time introduced in them, without, however, affecting their general character; and the scheme proposed by the Council of 1857 has, in its main principles, formed the basis of all the regulations under which examinations for direct commissions have been held to the present time.

It appears, however, from the evidence given before the Commission of 1869, that it has been found necessary, from time to time, to diminish the difficulty of the examinations, owing to the number of failures among the candidates, and that the present standard is considerably lower than that originally established. An acquaintance with French, English history and geography, and drawing, was at first an indispensable condition of qualification, but is now no longer required; the obligatory subjects of examination have thus been reduced from five to two—mathematics and English—while, at the same time, the amount of mathematical knowledge formerly exacted has been reduced.

The first examination under the new system took place in February, 1858. Even before this, at the end of 1857, the place of examination had been transferred from Sandhurst to London, and the method of conducting the examinations by printed papers, instead of by viv voce, had been adopted. The examinations have, ever since that period, been conducted by examiners appointed by the Council of Military Education, and have, as a rule, been held half yearly. By a regulation which has been for some years in force, candidates for direct commissions are also permitted to be examined at foreign stations. The examination is, in this case, conducted in the presence of a board appointed by the officer commanding the station; but the method of examination is, in all other respects, identical with that adopted at home. The examination papers are forwarded by, and the candidates’ replies are returned to, the Council of Military Education.

The plan proposed by the Council was intended to regulate admission to the army in ordinary times of peace; but almost immediately after it had been formally approved, and before it had actually come into operation, the pressure occasioned by the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny led to an abnormal condition of circumstances. In September, 1857, a circular was issued, announcing that commissions would be given without examination on the condition of the applicant raising a certain number of recruits. In March, however, of the following year, this temporary measure was abolished, the pressure for troops being no longer such as to render its continuance necessary. Since that period no candidates, with the exception of graduates of the universities, have obtained commissions without passing the regular examination.

Before 1862, candidates were eligible for commissions without purchase, on passing the examination for direct appointments. Since that year, however, all free commissions have been reserved for cadets at Sandhurst, and those who pass the direct examination have only obtained commissions by purchase.

III. PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION AS PREPARATORY TO MILITARY EXAMINATIONS.

A.—GENERAL NOTICE.

In connection with the Modern Departments, at some public schools, technical instruction in military subjects is actually at present given. This, for instance, is the case at Cheltenham College, the Modern Department at which appears, in fact, to have been originally instituted with the express object of affording means of special military education, and at the present day is officially called the “Military and Civil Department.” At one time, also, even at some schools in which Modern Departments did not exist, classes were formed in which instruction in military subjects was given to boys intended for the army. Both at Eton and at Harrow such classes existed, and fortification and military drawing were taught in them. The object of the formation of these classes appears in both cases to have been to enable boys to go up straight from school to the examinations for admission to the army, without the necessity of having recourse to private tuition. At the time of their institution a knowledge of fortification was required in the examination for direct commissions, and a candidate was therefore unable to present himself for this examination without some special preparation. At the commencement of 1858, however, the direct commission examinations were entirely remodelled; the small amount of fortification previously required was at that time excluded from the subjects of examination, which have ever since been of a non-professional character, and more or less such as enter into the course of ordinary liberal education. With the exclusion of technical subjects from the military examinations, the necessity for any special instruction in such subjects in candidates for admission to the army ceased. The military class at Harrow seems to have died out within a few years of its establishment; it has not been in existence during the last ten years and more. At Eton, though the corresponding class is still maintained, the teaching of technical military subjects in it has been abandoned. Even in the Modern Department at Cheltenham the instruction appears of late years to have become of a less decidedly military character than it originally was; and fortification, which was at one time taught at Wellington College, no longer enters into the course of instruction there. In the Modern Side, which has within the present year been established at Harrow, though partially intended, among other purposes, to assist the education of boys intended for the army, no attempt is made to give special military instruction.

The question of the possibility of affording an adequate military education at civil schools was fully discussed by the Commissioners appointed in 1856 to consider the training of officers for the scientific corps.

The Commissioners expressed their unhesitating dissent from this view. After pointing out the difficulties of giving at ordinary schools a complete preparation even in studies of a general preparatory character, such as modern languages and mathematics, and the still greater difficulties of teaching special subjects, like military history and topography, the Report proceeds:

The Report of the Public Schools Commission does not appear to have made any direct reference to the question of the possibility of giving technical military instruction at civil schools; but the disinclination shown by the Commissioners to recommend even the general institution of “Modern Departments” would lead to the conclusion that they were not disposed to view with favor the introduction of any system of special instruction into the ordinary school course.

The question has been dealt with at considerable length in the evidence taken before the present Commission. In addition to the evidence given by Dr. Barry, Mr. Southwood, Dr. Benson, and Dr. Temple, to which particular reference is made in the Report, opinions on the subject were expressed by several military witnesses. Major-General Sir P. Herbert considers that all which is learnt at Sandhurst—all the knowledge requisite for a line officer—might equally well be acquired at a public school, if proper arrangements were made for teaching it. In his opinion fortification (including the practical construction of field-works), military drawing and surveying, military history and drill, could all be taught by military instructors at public schools without difficulty, and without interference with the subjects of general education. Major-General White considers that military history, modern languages, and drawing might be taught with advantage at public schools to boys intended for the army, although it would be difficult to teach the practical work of field fortification, artillery, and surveying. Colonel Baker appears to be of opinion that at the Universities, certainly, a special preliminary education might be given to candidates for the army, on a system similar to that which it was at one time proposed to introduce at Cambridge, but which does not appear to have ever been actually adopted. At the same time, though this instruction would be of a special character, Colonel Baker does not seem to contemplate its embracing strictly technical military subjects. On the other hand, His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge is of opinion that special military classes at public schools would fail; Major-General Sir F. Abbott thinks it unnecessary to establish such classes; Colonel Hort is decidedly opposed to an attempt to give military instruction at any but a military college, on the ground that it could not be so effectively given at a civil establishment, and would, moreover, interfere with the acquisition of a general education; and Lieut.-General Sir D. Cameron considers that it would be impossible for public schools to give a thorough or perfect knowledge of the practical subjects taught at Sandhurst, such as fortification, artillery, military drawing, and surveying.

In connection with the same subject suggestions have been made by some witnesses that the Government should assign a certain number of free commissions annually, as prizes to be competed for, either at particular public schools, or more generally amongst candidates educated at such schools. The institution of military exhibitions or scholarships at civil schools, and of military degrees at the Universities, has been also suggested. By some witnesses these proposals are advocated with the special view of inducing public schools to adopt a system of military instruction; by others with the more general object of holding out increased encouragement to enter the service to candidates who have had the advantage of a public school education.

Although the question of giving military instruction at public schools was not specially discussed by the Public School Commissioners, their attention was directed to the results of public school education in preparing candidates for the military examinations. Their Report speaks as follows in reference to this subject:

III. EXAMINATIONS FOR PROMOTIONS.

HISTORICAL NOTICE.

Examinations for promotion were for the first time instituted shortly after the introduction of examinations for admission to the army, by the Duke of Wellington when Commander-in-Chief, in the year 1850. Acircular memorandum, published on the 14th of May of that year, announced that all officers would in future be subjected to an examination previously to promotion to the respective ranks of lieutenant and captain. The first examination was to be confined to subjects connected with the rudiments of drill, regimental duties, interior economy, and the Mutiny Act and Articles of War. The second examination for the rank of captain was in addition to extend to more general subjects, and to include geography, ancient and modern history, mathematics, and field and permanent fortification; but the examination in these subjects was not intended to affect lieutenants who had entered the service previously to 1849.

The examination for promotion to the rank of lieutenant was to be conducted regimentally by the commanding officer and the two next senior officers of the candidate’s regiment. The purely professional portion of the second examination, for the rank of captain, was to be conducted in the same manner; with regard to the mode of testing the candidates’ qualifications in the more general subjects required in this examination, it was stated that such orders would be given in each individual case as the Commander-in-Chief might think proper and necessary.

These regulations continued in force up to the time of the institution of the Council of Military Education in 1857, although it appears, both from official statements made by the Secretary at War, and from numerous expressions of opinion in Parliament between the years 1854 and 1857, that, at least so far as regarded the second examination for the rank of captain, little attempt was made, even nominally, to enforce the regulations. Mr. Sidney Herbert proposed, in 1854, in connection with his general scheme of military education, to remodel the examinations and to institute a special machinery for conducting them; and though no actual steps were taken to carry out his proposal, the necessity of making the examinations real and genuine tests of professional knowledge, and of enforcing strict qualifications for promotion, was frequently recognized in the numerous discussions which took place in Parliament on the subject of military education during the course of the Crimean War.

The Council of Military Education, on their appointment in 1857, were directed to consider the question of the professional examination of officers for promotion up to the rank of captain, and in the course of the year submitted a proposal on this subject, in connection with a scheme for providing instruction for officers after entering the service.

New regulations on the subject were issued on the 19th of July, 1858, which, while introducing little change in regard to the examination of cornets and ensigns, rendered a knowledge of mathematics, history, and fortification no longer requisite in the second examination for the rank of captain. Geography, on the other hand, was still retained among the subjects, and, as a condition of promotion to a captaincy, a lieutenant was required “to be able to state the general divisions of the world, the name of the capital of each nation in Europe, and the principal rivers, seaports, and military posts in Great Britain, Ireland, and Her Majesty’s Dominions in every part of the world.” The examinations of cornets and ensigns still continued to be conducted regimentally; that of lieutenants, so far as related to matters of regimental economy, detail, or discipline, was to be made by boards of officers appointed by the commanding officer at the station, consisting, when possible, of three senior officers not of the same corps as the candidate.

In November, 1858, revised regulations were issued, which, in accordance with the recommendations of the Council of Military Education, made considerable changes in the examinations, and placed them on their present basis. The subjects of regimental and ordinary duties on which candidates were to be examined were more minutely detailed than heretofore; the examinations were made entirely professional, geography being excluded from the second examination, and at the same time it was announced that lieutenants would be required to show a sufficient knowledge of reconnaissance and of field fortification. But the most important change made at this time was in regard to the mode of conducting the examinations, which were no longer to be carried on regimentally, but by a board appointed by the commanding officer of the district, consisting (ifpossible) of three field officers,—with the additional provision that in no case in which it could possibly be avoided, an officer of the same regiment as the candidate was to be a member of the board. Cornets and ensigns were to be required to pass the examination before completing eight months’ service; and, in order to give additional stringency to the regulations, it was announced that the Commander-in-Chief would “not hesitate to promote (either regimentally or from other corps) officers who may have passed the required examination, in place of the idle and incompetent.”

REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN 1869.

Infantry and Cavalry.

ROYAL WARRANT OF OCTOBER 30, 1871.

In pursuance of the abolition of the whole system of purchase, sale, or exchange for money, of commissions in the army, by Royal Warrant, dated July 20, 1871, certain changes in respect to first appointments, regimental promotion, and exchanges, became necessary, and were provided for in the Royal Warrant issued October 30, 1871, which became operative on the first day of November following. By these regulations, the first step in official rank is that of Sub-Lieutenant; the rank of Cornet and Ensign being no longer recognized. As a general rule, the final appointments will be given only to successful candidates at a competitive examination. These will be probationary, and revocable in case the unfitness of the incumbents shall be demonstrated by practical trial in their work. From the Memorandum of the Secretary of War (Edward Cardwell), which accompanies the Warrant, we cite the following as defining the present system of original appointments and promotion.

1. Religious Knowledge. 2. One of the National Languages. 3. Geography and History of the Austrian State. 4.Arithmetic. 5.Elements of Geometry. 6.Military Correspondence and Management of the Internal Affairs of a Company.39 7.Pioneer Service.40 8.Knowledge of the Arms of the Infantry. 9.Rules and Regulations. 10.Rules of Drill, Exercise, and Manoeuvring. 11.Calligraphy. 12.Military Drawing. 13.Gymnastics, Fencing, and Swimming.

After the close of the course the pupils who have done remarkably well enter the Infantry as Corporals, the pupils who have done well as Exempts, with the corporal’s badge; those who have done moderately, as Exempts; and those who have done either remarkably well, or well, will be, without further examination, named as Cadets41 as soon as they pay down the sum required for outfit, or prove their legitimate claim to exemption from this outlay, they themselves being consenting parties.

The arrangements of the School Squadrons, with a number of 60 pupils in each, are analogous to those of the School Companies, special attention only being given to instruction in riding and practical exercise in the Cavalry service; for which purpose each Squadron is provided with 71 horses.

The first of the School Squadrons forms a Regiment of Dragoons, the second one of Lancers, and the third one of Hussars.

The subjects taught are as follows:—

On leaving, the pupils enter the Cavalry in the grades corresponding to those mentioned above for the Infantry.

The Frontier School Companies, each of 120 pupils, give three yearly courses.

In all essential points, these institutions are organized on the same plan with the Infantry School Companies. As, however, Officers and Non-commissioned Officers on the Military Frontiers are also intrusted with the general administration, and accordingly require of necessity a knowledge of political administration, of jurisprudence, and agriculture, the range of the plan of study in the Frontier School Companies is more extensive.

The following subjects are taught:—

The pupils of the Frontier School Companies, at the close of their third year, enter the Frontier Troops, under the conditions already stated in the case of the Infantry School Companies.

The Artillery School Companies have a course of three years, and consist each of 120 scholars (pupils and attendant pupils.)

The subjects of study are—

After the close of the complete course, pupils who have done remarkably well enter the Artillery as Corporals, those who do well as Bombardiers, the others as Upper Cannoneers.

The most distinguished scholars, however, pass at the close of their second year into the Artillery Academy free of cost, as Attendant Pupils (frequentanten,) with the rank of Lance-Corporals, to receive there the education which will fit them for the rank of officers.

The Engineer School Company contains 120 scholars, distributed in three yearly courses. The subjects taught are—

The scholars enter the Corps of Engineers in the same way as has been described in the case of the other School Companies; the most distinguished passing as Attendant Pupils with the rank of Lance-Corporals, free of cost, into the Academy of Engineers.

The Pioneer School Company also contains 120 scholars, similarly divided into three yearly courses.

The instruction given is similar to that of the Engineer School Company, special attention being paid to pioneering duties.

After the close of the third year, the scholars enter the Corps of Pioneers, under the various conditions already described. Scholars who specially distinguish themselves will at the close of the second year be received, free of cost, as Attendant Pupils (frequentanten) in the Academy of Engineers; and after completing the four years’ course there, be distributed as Officers in the Corps of Pioneers.

The number of scholars in the Flotilla School Company is 60; and the course of instruction three years in length. The subjects are—

The most distinguished scholars are sent, free of charge, at the end of the second year, to the Artillery Academy, and after completing the four years there, enter the Flotilla Corps as Officers. The others leave at the end of three years under conditions similar to those already described.

The Marine School Company contains 150 pupils, and its course of instruction lasts four years.

The subjects are—

The pupils will also be thoroughly exercised in boat manoeuvring, in the use of sails, and of cannons, and after the end of each year’s examination, will pass some weeks on board a sailing vessel for practice.

Pupils who either through want of capacity or of diligence fall behind in the theoretical instruction, will at the end of the second year be sent on board ship as ship’s boys (Schiffs-junge.)

The other scholars go through the courses of the third and fourth year, and then pass, on the same plan as in the Infantry School Companies, into the Marine Infantry, or as Marine Artillerymen or as Engineering pupils44 of the first class, into the Navy, or into the Arsenal Works Company, to devote themselves to Naval Architecture.

The best scholars enter after four years instruction as Attendant Pupils in the Artillery Academy, and after completing their time there are admitted as Second Lieutenants of the second class into the Marine Artillery.

B. SCHOOLS FOR OFFICERS.

1. The Cadet Institutions.

The object of these is to prepare pupils for the instruction in military science given in the Academies.

They are four in number, with 200 pupils in each.

They contain military or treasury places, either wholly or half gratuitous; places on provincial and private foundations; and finally places for paying pupils.

The exact number of places open to pupils on provincial and private foundations, and to paying pupils, can not be determined, as in this respect the Cadet Schools form a single whole with the Academies, and the amount can only be fixed as a total for these institutions taken together. There are altogether 1,100 of these military places, which may be distributed in varying proportions amongst the Cadet Schools and the Academies; the number in any one of them can not be stated as a rule.

The military foundations are reserved for the sons of Officers serving or having served with the sword; the entirely gratuitous places for the sons of Officers in want, and the half gratuitous places for those of Officers provided with means of their own, or serving in higher positions.

Officers employed in the Outfit Department, Remounting45 Department, the Department of Military Law and Jurisdiction46 are thus excluded, unless they have previously served with the sword. But for the sons of these Officers, of the Military Judges, the Military Surgeons, and other Officials, having attained the eleventh or any higher allowance class,47 there will be reserved eight entirely and eight half gratuitous places in the Cadet Schools and the Academies.

Appointments to the military and provincial foundations are granted by His Majesty, the former on the recommendation of the Supreme War Department, the latter on that of the Minister of the Interior. Among the former are included, as already stated, the most distinguished pupils of the Lower Houses of Education, for whose transfer to the Cadet Schools the rules are laid down, the recommendation being annually submitted for His Majesty’s approval.

Special regard will be given to candidates whose fathers have been killed or invalided in the field; after these, to those who are orphans on both sides; to the sons of Officers of special merit, of Officers with large families, and the like.

Appointments upon provincial and private foundations, or as paying pupils, will be made in the manner already stated in the general account of the Educational Institutions.

The age of admission is the eleventh year completed, and twelfth year not exceeded, and the candidate will be expected to know the subject of instruction prescribed for the third class of the common (normal) schools.

A knowledge of German, however, will not be considered indispensable. Pupils who are not Germans will receive in the first half year of the first course special instruction in German.

The instruction continues during four yearly courses. The command is held by a Field Officer, assisted by—

The subjects of instruction are—

Those pupils who satisfactorily complete their four years’ course are transferred, according to their capacities, and as far as possible, to their own wishes, into one of the Military Academies. Entrance into the Marine Academy takes place at the close of the second year.

Pupils who do ill, will, at the close of any one of the three first years, be removed into the course of the following year at one of the Upper Houses of Education; or, at the close of the fourth year, into one of the Infantry School Companies.

This removal, in the case of paying pupils, will be dependent on the consent of the parents; failing which, they will be sent back home.

2. The Military Academies.

The object in these is to educate Officers in the higher military subjects for the different arms of the service.

There are four Academies; the Neustadt Academy, the Artillery Academy, the Engineers’ Academy, and the Marine Academy.

The scholars in each are divided into four yearly courses of nearly equal numbers. In the Neustadt Academy each year is sub-divided into two parallel classes, the instruction being the same in both.

The pupils in the Military Academies are of the different kinds described in the account of the Cadet Houses, and the appointments similarly made; the Academies and the Cadet Houses in these respects forming a single body.

Candidates for admission into the Neustadt Academy, the Artillery Academy, or the Engineers’ Academy, must be nearly, if not quite, fifteen, and not above sixteen years old. For admission into the Marine Academy, they must be nearly, if not quite, thirteen, not above fourteen years old.

The Academies receive their pupils in the first instance from the Cadet Schools, after the satisfactory completion of the fourth (or,in the case of the Marine Academy, the second) year, and then, as already stated under the head of the School Companies, from the Artillery School Companies, and from the Engineer, Pioneer, Flotilla, and Marine School Companies, after the highly satisfactory completion of the second (or,in the Marine School, of the fourth) year.

Pupils from these School Companies, before entering the Academies, will take the Military Oath, receive the rank of Lance-Corporals, and be admitted free of charge as Attendant Pupils into the Academies, to receive their education for the rank of Officer. Scholars from the general body of soldiers, who are attending the School Companies, are to be treated, in respect of their transfer to the Academies, in the same way as the other pupils.48

Entrance into the Academies is confined to the commencement of the first year.49 Pupils admitted from places of private instruction are examined in the subjects taught in the Cadet Schools; those who wish to enter the Neustadt, the Artillery or Engineers’ Academy, in the following subjects, to the extent here described:—

Candidates for the Marine Academy will be required to know,—

Candidates from both institutions must also possess the degree of religious knowledge corresponding to their age, and must write a good current hand.

Pupils who are found negligent in the course of their academical studies, will at the close of the first, second, or third year be transferred to the classes corresponding to their age in the School Companies, or will be enlisted in the Army as Cadets if they possess the requisite bodily qualifications, in the manner already described.50

The Neustadt Academy.

Wiener Neustadt having been the seat of this Academy for more than a century, the ancient name thence derived will be retained in its usual acceptation, though the Academies for the Artillery and the Engineers will also be placed in the same locality. The institution counts 400 pupils, designed primarily for the Infantry of the Line and of the Frontier, and secondly, for the Chasseurs and the Cavalry.

The Director of the Academy is a Colonel or General, attached to whom, for purposes of instruction, discipline, and general management, there are three field and thirty-four other Officers; for religious care and instruction, four Ecclesiastics; for medical attention, one Regimental Surgeon, one Army Surgeon, and one Surgeon’s Assistant; for the accounts, one Accountant, and four Accountant’s Assistants. The large number of pupils maintained in the institution requires, moreover, a proportionately large staff for superintendence, a numerous body of attendants, servants, and the like; so that the whole number to be added to that of the pupils does not fall short of 309 persons; 64 horses are allowed for the riding lessons.

The plan of study is based on that of the Cadet Schools, and embraces the following subjects:—

Pupils who show a talent for general drawing will be practiced in it.

After the completion of the fourth year’s course, the pupils will be recommended by the Supreme War Department to His Majesty for nomination as Second Lieutenants of the second class.

In their distribution into the various regiments, &c., of the army, the choice of the pupils will, as far as possible, be considered.

The pupils upon leaving will be, without exception, fully equipped at the expense of the State. Only in the case of the pupils who wish to enter the Cavalry, the parents (orguardians) will be called upon to give security for the payment of 1,000 florins (100l.) towards the expenses of the first equipment, and for a monthly allowance of 25 florins (2l. 10s.)

3. The Artillery and Engineers’ Academy.

The arrangements of these two Academies are in many respects similar, as required by the character of the two kindred sciences for which they are founded.

The number of scholars is fixed at 160 pupils, and 40 attendant pupils (Frequentanten) in each.

The command in each is intrusted to a General or a Colonel.

For the smaller number of scholars, fewer instructors, superintendents, and attendants are needed; the complete amount in each Academy is fixed at 200 men, in addition to the scholars. Each has thirty-two horses allowed to it.

The plan of instruction is in many respects identical in each.

The subjects taught in both are—

Common drawing will be treated, as it is at the Neustadt Academy, as an optional subject.

In the Artillery Academy the following additional subjects will be taught;—

In the Academy of the Engineers the additional subjects are—

The pupils of the two Academies enter in the same way as those at Neustadt, after the satisfactory completion of four years’ instruction, with the rank of Second Lieutenant of the Second Class, the respective services of the Artillery, and of the Engineers or Pioneers. Pupils for whom no vacancies can be found enter the Infantry.

4. The Marine Academy.

This, like the other Academies, is in the charge of a Field Officer, or a General.

The pupils are 100 in number; the Teachers, other Officers, and attendants, 88.

One essential distinction here (explained by the necessity of habituating the pupils to the sea) is the admission at an age earlier by two years, and the proportionally earlier termination of the course.

The plan of instruction combines a continuation of the studies prescribed in the Cadet Schools, with the commencement of those specially required for the marine service, viz.:—

In addition to the practical instruction given in the course of the school year, the pupils of the three first years will in the months of August and September be sent in sailing vessels on a voyage for practice.

The pupils at the end of four years enter as Cadets into the Navy, the Flotilla Corps, or the Corps of Naval Architecture.

After completing a practical course of two years, they will receive their promotion as Second Lieutenants of the second class.54

C. SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

1. The Military Teachers’ School.

The object here is a double one; first, to bring up good and serviceable teachers in the subjects of study prescribed for the Military Houses of Education; secondly to provide at the same time instructors in gymnastics and fencing for all the military schools and for the troops. The institution accordingly consists of two departments, each of thirty Attendant Pupils, receiving instruction in these two different branches.

Non-commissioned Officers are admitted after a service of at least two years. Candidates for admission into the Teachers’ department must, in addition, possess the required amount of knowledge in the subjects taught in the Military Houses of Education; and, as a rule, must know, besides German, one other of the Austrian national languages. Proficiency in every one of the subjects will not be considered essential. Candidates for admission to the Gymnastic and Fencing Department will be required to show a certain amount of readiness in the use of arms and in gymnastic exercises, and an evident capacity for acquiring greater skill.

Registration for admission is to be obtained in the usual course of the service from the Supreme War Department.

The Attendant Pupils receive, in addition to their ordinary pay, bread and the extra allowance; and for their better subsistence also an allowance corresponding to that granted for provision during a march.

The command is held by a Field Officer or Captain; six Subaltern Officers and four Sergeants act as teachers, the latter as assistants in the instruction in fencing and gymnastics, and as swimming master. The instructor in the art and methods of teaching may be a civilian.

The subjects of instruction in the Teachers’ Department are—

In the Gymnastic Department,—

In both Departments a certain number of hours weekly will be devoted to Military Exercise.

Instruction in all the subjects will be given with special reference to the methods to be pursued in teaching them in the various Military Schools.

The course in each Department lasts one year. Under certain circumstances particular pupils in the Teachers’ Department may remain for the further completion of their studies a second year in the institution.

In the Teachers’ Department, pupils who show no aptitude or liking for some particular subject, may be exempted from attending the lessons given in it, so as to allow them to give more thorough attention to other branches.

After passing the examination, the pupils are either sent immediately to undertake duty in the Military Schools, or return to their service in the troops, and pass, as occasion requires, into the Military Schools. Corporals who distinguish themselves by remarkably good progress will be promoted to the rank of Sergeant.

2. The United Higher Course for the Artillery and Engineers,

Has for its object the more advanced instruction of young Officers in a scientific and technical point of view, for service in the Artillery and Engineers.

Twenty Officers, of more than usual capacity, between twenty-one and twenty-six years of age, will be admitted from each of the two arms. They must be unmarried, and must have served with distinction during a period of not less than two years.

Officers in whose cases these conditions are satisfied, and who desire to be admitted to the course, apply for registration for admission to the examination, in the ordinary form, to the War Department.

Officers who, in the month of October, are summoned to attend, may charge their traveling expenses to the Treasury, and undergo an examination before the Professors attached to the Course, in the following subjects:—

Candidates for the Artillery will be, moreover, examined in the Tactics of the three Arms, and in Artillery; and those from the Engineers, in the Art of Fortification and in Civil Architecture, both Plain and Ornamental.

The text-books used in the Academies of the Artillery and Engineers will serve as a measure for the range of attainment required. Pupils who passed with distinction through these Academies will thus be specially fitted for admission into the Higher Course after they have proved, during their time of service, their diligence in bringing the knowledge they have acquired into actual application.

On the close of this preliminary examination, the results will be submitted to the Supreme War Department, and the recommendations for admission laid before His Majesty.

A superior Field Officer, either of the Artillery or the Engineers, will be intrusted with the charge of the united course. The lectures will be given by the Professors of the Academy of the Artillery and Engineers. From the nature of the duties, partly common and partly distinct, which devolve upon the two corps, it follows that the course of the studies (which will be carried on during two years) will in like manner be partly common and partly separate.

The subjects of common instruction will be—

Separate instruction will be given to Artillery Officers in—

To Engineer Officers, in—

The pupils receive in addition practical guidance and supervision in all subjects of a scientific nature connected with the Art of War.

The pupils of the second year undergo an examination in October. Upon the results of the examination the War Department decides on their promotion for the rank of Second to that of First Lieutenants.

3. The War or Staff School.

The object of the War School is to give Officers of all arms an education for higher duties, especially for those of the Staff and of the Upper Adjutant Department.55

Any Subaltern Officer of the active army, without distinction of arms, may claim admission into the War School, provided he is above twenty-one and under twenty-six years old, is unmarried, and has served as Officer uninterruptedly and with distinction two years at least with the troops, and, provided, finally, he has passed the prescribed preliminary examination.

For admission to the examination, registration, to be obtained in the usual form from the War Department, is requisite.

The examination is conducted between October 10th and 20th, in the War School buildings; the registered candidates will be summoned to Vienna at the beginning of October; traveling expenses will be paid by the Treasury. The subjects are—

The amount of knowledge required in these subjects will be regulated by the range of the text-books prescribed for use in the Academy at Neustadt. Regard, however, will not so much be given to the minutiÆ of knowledge possessed by the candidate, but rather to the evidence of his having a correct judgment and quick apprehension, and the power of expressing himself both orally and in writing.

Upon the results of the examination, formally drawn up by the authorities of the school, recommendations for admission will be submitted to the sanction of His Majesty.

The number of attendants in the War School is fixed at thirty, and the length of course is two years.

The attending pupils receive, in addition to their ordinary pay, a monthly allowance of twenty florins, rations, and allowance for two horses; when employed in taking surveys and reconnoitring, they have an extra allowance of thirty florins monthly.

The War School is commanded by a General or Superior Field Officer.

Five Field Officers or Captains, taken as a rule from the Staff, give lectures on the prescribed scientific subjects. One Field Officer or Captain of Cavalry takes the duty of riding-master; and one civil Professor that of instruction in the French language and literature. Necessary officers, attendants, and servants take the duty of adjutants, of the internal management, of the service, and of attending to the thirty horses.

The first year’s subjects of instruction are—

Those of the second year,—

The course begins on the 1st of November, and lasts to the end of September.

The Attendants at the War School must be practiced in those arms in which they have not served. They are for this purpose distributed into the various bodies of troops forming the garrison of Vienna, go through the exercises and manoeuvres of these troops—in the first year with one, and in the second with the other arm. At the termination of these periods of practice, they will be called upon to undertake the command of a Battery, of a Squadron of Cavalry, and of a Division of Infantry.

In the month of May, the attendant pupils of the first year will go out upon a course of practical surveying; those of the second year will be similarly employed in reconnoitring, choosing sites for encampment, discovering, judging of, and describing proper points for taking up positions, forming tÊtes-de-pont, entrenched camps, and the like, and in performing other duties falling within the service of the Staff.

At the beginning of October, the pupils of the second year will undergo an examination, which will be conducted, both orally and by papers.

Upon the results of this the Supreme War Department will determine upon their promotion to the rank of First Lieutenants (ifthey are not already of that rank,) and this without any reference to their previous position, their position henceforth being simply determined by their merit.

The same grounds determine the cases of those who are admitted to the Staff, or who return to their respective arms.

Those who, after a satisfactory completion of the course, return to service with the troops, will, after three years’ meritorious service, be specially recommended for extraordinary promotion.

Control of the Institutions.

The Upper and Lower Houses of Education, the Infantry School Companies, the Cavalry School Squadrons, and the Frontier School Companies, are under the orders of the Commanders of the Army, the Army Corps, or the military government in whose district they are situated. The Artillery and Engineer School Companies are under the orders of the General Artillery and Engineer Departments; the Pioneer and Flotilla School Companies, under those of the Quartermaster-General’s Department; the Marine School Company, under those of the Admiralty. Which functionaries, however, receive from the Supreme War Department all directions relating to organization and instruction.

The Cadet Schools, the Academies, the Military Teachers’ School, the Upper Artillery and Engineer Course, and the War School, are immediately under the orders of the Supreme War Department.

The general organization of all the military schools and places of instruction is once for all established by the regulations sanctioned by His Majesty. These regulations contain all that concerns the physical, moral, and intellectual training of the pupils, and all have the one object of rearing them up as worthy members of the Austrian army, and faithful supporters of the throne and of the honor of their country.

III. REMARKS ON THE AUSTRIAN MILITARY EDUCATION.

The English Commissioners in their General “Report on the Education and Training of Officers for the Scientific Corps” hold the following language:—

The magnitude of the Military Education of Austria entitles it to rank among the chief Institutions of the Empire. It has been remodeled since the wars of 1848, 1849. It is now centralized, and wholly directed by one of the four Co-ordinate Sections of the War Office, which is independent of the others, and reports directly to the Emperor. This Educational or “Fourth” Section has the control of between 300,000l. and 400,000l. yearly. It provides for the free or nearly free education of more than 5,000 pupils. The extent and completeness of the system will be best understood by a reference to the clear and valuable official account of the schools.56

The military schools are divided by this document into (1) those which educate pupils for Non-commissioned Officers, (2) those which educate for Officers, (3) and those Senior Schools which complete the education and extend the instruction of both classes. The method of training Non-commissioned Officers is a peculiar and remarkable part of the system.

1. No less than 5,730 pupils are in process of being educated for Non-commissioned Officers. They are received into a Military School at seven years old, and at that early age are devoted to the army, with a kind of solemnity, by their fathers, somewhat similar to the practice at Woolwich Academy :—“Ihereby pledge myself to surrender up my son to the Imperial Military Service, in case of his being admitted into a Military Educational Institution, and I will under no pretext require his return.” This promise, as the official document states, may no doubt be recalled if the youth finds that he has mistaken his vocation; but it must exercise great influence (and such is its avowed object) in retaining him in it.

After passing successively through two Junior Institutions,—the Lower Houses of Education, where he continues till eleven years old, and the Upper Houses, where he remains till fifteen,—the boy receives his finishing course in one of what are termed the School Companies, the highest class of schools for training boys to become Non-commissioned Officers in all arms of the service. These are twenty in number, and scattered over the whole Empire, containing generally 120 pupils each, though in one case only sixty; and with a course of either two or three years, according to the nature of the service. The extent and the requirements of the Empire give a striking variety to their character. Thus, in the frontier School Companies, “the range of the studies is more extensive, because the Non-commissioned Officers on the Military Frontiers are intrusted with the general administration, and require of necessity a knowledge of Political Administration, of Jurisprudence, and Agriculture;” and thus also the Non-commissioned Officers for the responsible Flotilla Service of the mouths of the great rivers, the lagoons of the Po, the head of the Adriatic, and the lakes, are carefully educated and frequently promoted. Following the course of a pupil through these Upper Houses and School Companies, we were much struck by the sensible and vigorous character of the education, and the motives supplied for exertion. In the Upper Houses the boys compete for entrance to the School Companies which they prefer, and the more scientific companies are a special object of ambition, because it is more usual in these for young men to be raised by their talents to the Academies, and thus made Officers, “free of all cost:” according to the regulations, however, this is possible in all. It may be stated that from six to ten pupils from each of the more scientific School Companies,—the Artillery, Engineer, Pioneer, Flotilla, and Marine Companies,—are yearly transferred to the Academies, to complete their education there for the Officer’s Commission.

A system of this kind, supplying at once a good education and large opportunities of advancement, must necessarily operate as a great encouragement to young men educating for Non-commissioned Officers; and allowing for the social differences of the two countries, it resembles in spirit the French system, which throws open the gates of the Polytechnic and St. Cyr, and with them a proportion of the Commissions in the Army, to all.

This, however, is not all. The sums devoted to the education of Non-commissioned Officers, as well as Officers, are immense, and may be regarded as a spontaneous contribution of the National Feeling, no less than a State provision. Asystem both of public and private foundations (Stiftungen) prevails—part derived from the Emperor, part from the provinces, part from private gifts and legacies—by which 3,190 pupils are supported in the Houses of Education and the School Companies, and 1,320 in the Cadet Schools and Academies. The very large majority of these exhibitions supply a complete, about 200 a partial, maintenance. And it is curious to observe the aid to education which is so common in our own Universities, devoted in Austria to what may be termed the great National Institution—the Army,—and retaining all the limitations to the descendants of Founders or Natives of provinces which marked our own foundations. Some of these exhibitions have been founded by foreign soldiers for their own countrymen. Thus there are two bearing the name of the O’Gara and the O’Brady, to be held by any Irishmen of good family, one of which is in the gift of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin. We should add that this system is still a living and popular one. Within three years the city of BrÜnn has founded such an exhibition “for sons of Austrian subjects in Moravia, and by preference in BrÜnn, in commemoration of His Majesty’s escape from assassination in 1853.” We ourselves heard a distinguished Officer express an intention of founding one of these Exhibitions. The comparison with the open Bourses of the Polytechnic is remarkable; but the Austrian appointments to free places seem to be given, like the Prussian, solely as rewards for the service of the parent.

2. The education of young men for Officers is conducted upon the same principles which regulate that for Non-commissioned Officers. The age of admission to a Cadet School is about eleven. The pupils are pledged to the service with the same formalities which we have noticed in the Lower Houses of Education. Between fifteen and sixteen they enter one of the Academies for the Line, the Artillery, the Engineers, or the Marine, and after four years they pass to their respective services.

Thus, unlike the French system, that which is followed in Austria commits the pupil to the Army, and to a Military Education, from an early age, resembling herein the plan of the Accademia Militare of Turin. But an attempt seems to be made to combine general with special teaching. Thus, although even in the two first years (from fifteen to seventeen,) at Wiener Neustadt, there is some introduction of successful practical military teaching, the chief weight is thrown upon mathematics, history, geography, drawing, and French; special military teaching has a greater, though far from an exclusive place, in the two last years. The studies are high, and (asfar as we could judge) pursued carefully, and with excellent discipline.

The description we have given of the system pursued in the Schools for Non-commissioned Officers will have shown that there is a constant appeal to emulation. The same is found at Wiener Neustadt. There is a careful system of assigning credits during the whole school period, which itself argues competition. The chief immediate reward, indeed, is the choice of a regiment on leaving the school; but the prospect of entering the Staff School stands in no distant perspective, and this is filled with so many pupils from Wiener Neustadt, that it must be looked upon as the sure reward of a successful Neustadter. There are other inducements of a different character. The discipline being strict, pupils are constantly removed from Wiener Neustadt and the other Academies to the schools for Non-commissioned Officers, and though sometimes allowed to enter the army as Officers, it must always be as juniors to their contemporaries at Wiener Neustadt. We heard instances of great strictness in this matter.

The new course for the Special Arms in Austria is not yet completely in operation. It is at present carried on separately in the Academy of OlmÜtz for the Artillery, and that of Znaim, in Moravia, for the Engineers. There are 200 pupils in each Academy, and the courses of instruction, which are more special or technical than at Wiener Neustadt, last four years, from the age of fifteen to nineteen. The yearly examinations, the manner in which the marks of the monthly examinations tell on the final one, and the careful classification of the pupils in the order of merit, reminded us of the system of the Polytechnic more than any other school we have seen. And an inspection of the very high credits obtained by the first thirty pupils will prove the diligence with which the studies are pursued. We should add that several pupils of marked talents come from the scientific School Companies, Afurther fact bears witness to the vigor of the discipline. We have alluded to the dismissal of unpromising subjects from the Austrian Military Schools. In the course of three years, since the changes of 1850, it appears that nearly 100 pupils were removed from Znaim, as not coming up to the standard required for the Engineers by the new regulations.

3. The courses of instruction in the three Academies for Infantry and Cavalry, Artillery, and for Engineers, last for the same time, and run (asit were) parallel to each other. Each is, or is to be, completed by a senior department. The United Course for the Artillery and Engineers is not indeed yet combined in the magnificent buildings begun at Wiener Neustadt; but it is already organized in a provisional state at Znaim for the Engineers, and the plan of instruction drawn up is a solid one. The arrangements for the general Staff School require more remark.

In our report upon Austrian schools we have specially noticed this School as remarkable for its thorough and open competitive character from first to last, and its very sensible plan of study. Admission to it is by competition, open to Officers of all arms: the pupils are not unduly overburdened with work; perhaps, there is even room for one or two more subjects of importance; but what is done seems to be done thoroughly; the Officers are carefully ranked, on leaving the School, according as the abilities they have displayed, may be considered a criterion of their fitness for employment on the General Staff; and in this order they enter the Staff Corps. The consequence is that every Officer knows distinctly, from the time that he first competes for admission until his final examination on leaving, that the order in which he will enter the Staff depends entirely on his own exertions and success at the school. It seemed to us that this open competition produced a spirit of confidence and energy in the students, as great, if not greater, than any we met with elsewhere.

The whole of the above system of education is directed by the Fourth Section of the War Department. In all the schools we found traces of its activity; and the energy and system which prevail in the Military Teaching of Austria appear in great measure to result from its being directed by this single head.

IV. THE STAFF OR WAR SCHOOL AT VIENNA.

[From Report of English Commissioners in 1856.]

The Staff School (Kriegs-Schule,) in Vienna, was established in 1851, and grew out of the experience of the Hungarian war, although a Staff-Corps had existed for more than a century in the Austrian army, and for many years past all the appointments in it have been made upon an examination, which was, in fact, one of competition. The process was formerly as follows:—

An officer desirous of becoming a candidate for a staff appointment, sent in his name to the colonel of his regiment, whose recommendation he was obliged to obtain as a preliminary step. If supplied with this, he began his course of staff study, and was sent for this purpose to some large garrison town as an attachÉ to the staff. Whilst here he went through, for two years, the course of drawing, writing military memoirs, mapping the country, &c., and for two years more served on active staff duty with different bodies of troops. At the end of these four years a number of the officers thus employed in a particular country were brought together, and examined by the chief of the staff in the country, assisted by a board of officers appointed for the purpose. No actual list was drawn out of the order in which the candidates acquitted themselves, but it was understood that the best were chosen and put upon the general staff. The work upon this was exceedingly laborious; few except officers of real ability were candidates for it, and patronage in it was looked upon with great dislike. On the other hand, studies and reading were not made the first requisite; a ready intelligence and quick eye to make an officer a Colonnen-fÜhrer,—leader of a column on a march,—were always most valued.

Before describing this school, it may be as well to mention shortly the staff-corps and the corps connected with it.1. The General Staff of the Austrian Army consists of:—