  The plan of this part of our work requires us to give a complete view of the government of the United States, and in such detail as to be adequate to all the purposes of the citizen and the student who wish to understand its structure and modes of working. It will be found, we think, a clear, concise, and complete account of what it is indispensable to the American to know. There are three branches, each independent, having its sphere of general action entirely distinct, and clearly defined by the Constitution; yet working in harmony with the others, and locking in, so to speak, with them at special points, like the cogs of a system of wheels. The adjustment was more perfect than the authors of the Constitution themselves believed; probably because the spirit of the whole was in harmony with the people whose interests it was designed to guard. These three branches are the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judicial. All the institutions or general subdivisions of each are given in connection, with such explanations and data as they seem to require. We commence with the Executive, as being most immediately in contact with the people at large, having a wider field, and a larger number of distinct organizations No human government is perfect, neither can exact and equal justice be done in every case by human laws. But the scope and design of our legislation and jurisprudence is to dispense justice to all, to place all on an equality before the laws, and to give the same rights to the rich and to the poor. No privileged class is known to our laws, and the lowest may aspire to the highest places of distinction and honor; many have done so, and have reached the most exalted positions. The fullest religious liberty is granted to all; every man may worship as he pleases, when and where he pleases, without molestation or fear. He is not, as in many other countries, taxed to support a church established by law. He may pay for religious purposes as much or as little as he pleases, and to any church he prefers, or he may pay nothing, and no one can call him to account or use any compulsion whatever in this matter. Every citizen has a vote for the choice of his rulers, and through his representatives a voice in making the laws by which he is governed. As to his business or calling, he may do that which best suits his interests or his tastes. He may go when or where he desires, he may stay in the country or leave it without restraint or hindrance; in short, he may do whatsoever seemeth good to him, provided he does not infringe on the rights of others. To this liberty, to these equal rights, privileges, and advantages do we attribute our rapid growth and power. The advantages and benefits of so wise, so liberal, and so beneficent a government are not unknown to the people of other countries where they do not enjoy so much freedom; and this accounts for the wonderful immigration to the United States from nearly every country in Europe. This flow has continued for more than three-quarters of a century, and is still unabated. It has added many millions to the natural increase of our population, Let us draw another contrast by considering Ireland. An oppressive government has diminished the population, prevented any advancement, and impoverished the country. We might draw many such contrasts between the United States and other countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America, which would convince any one who has the power to trace causes to effects, and effects to causes, that a just and liberal government is an essential condition upon which the prosperity of any country depends. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.CHAPTER I. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| France | in | 1843 |
| Prussia, and 17 other German States | ” | 1852 |
| Switzerland | ” | 1855 |
| Baden | ” | 1857 |
| Sweden | ” | 1860 |
| Venezuela, South America | ” | 1861 |
The time is probably not distant when treaties of this sort will be made between us and all the civilized nations of the world; for the intercourse between us and foreign nations is greater than ever before.
The effect of these international arrangements is to render the perpetration of crime more dangerous than it would be if they did not exist. Flight from the country where the crime was committed was formerly one of the most effectual methods of escaping the penalty. But extradition treaties, Atlantic cables, and land telegraphs, have nearly spoiled this game.
3. An extradition treaty, then, is a mutual agreement between two nations to deliver up, each to the other, upon demand and proper proof of criminality, such persons as have committed crimes in one country and then fled to the other, that they may be taken back, tried, and punished where the offense was committed. But these demands for escaped criminals can not be sustained if made for every crime whatever. They will only be complied with when the crime is one which is named in the treaty itself. These crimes, upon examination of a number of such treaties, we find to be: 1. Murder, or an assault with an intent to commit murder. 2. Piracy. 3. Arson. 4. Robbery. 5. Forgery, or the uttering of forged papers, or the making or circulating counterfeit money, either paper or coin. 6. Rape. 7. Embezzlement, and 8. Burglary.
4. It should be observed that a mere demand for an alleged offender is not sufficient. Proof enough to convince the judge before whom the case is brought must accompany the demand. He must be satisfied that the party demanded has committed the alleged offense; when this is done the judge reports his finding to the Secretary of State, whose duty then is, under his hand and seal of office, to issue the final writ of extradition; after which the criminal may be taken out of the United States (by force, if necessary), and back to the country where he committed the crime, there to be dealt with according to the laws which he violated.
5. In some of our extradition treaties it is expressly stipulated that neither party (government) shall be bound to surrender its own citizens, or any person for merely a political offense. In others it is agreed that the provisions in the treaty shall not apply to cases where the crime was perpetrated before the treaty was made. This plea, we think, would be held to be a good defense in all cases, whether so stipulated in the treaty or not.
6. The treaties between different nations for the surrender of criminals are so analogous to one of the provisions contained in our Constitution, that to insert it here will give the reader a
“A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.”
CHAPTER VII.
BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES.
1. These officers, called Consuls, are employed by most civilized nations, all those at least who have an extensive intercourse with foreign countries, and they are recognized by the Law of Nations as being clothed, when acting in their official capacity, with the authority and inviolability of their respective governments. Their place of official business is protected by the flag of their country, an insult to which renders reparation or war necessary to maintain its honor. Consuls are agents of their governments, but most of their duties have reference to the interests of private citizens who may be within their Consulate. There may be a great number of them in one country, and they are usually located in the seaports.
2. The Constitution provides that the President and Senate shall appoint all our Consuls. The President signs their commissions, which bear the great seal of the United States, and which prove to the government where they are sent that they are duly appointed and authorized to discharge the duties of
3. In order to show the nature of a Consul’s duties, such as the laws impose upon him, we will state the substance of several acts relating to this subject.
1. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States arrives at the port where he is stationed, it is his duty to receive the ship’s papers, and to see if they are all correct.
2. It is his duty to provide for sick, disabled, and destitute American seamen, and to send them home by some vessel going to the United States.
3. He must hear the complaints of seamen, and settle disputes between the captain and men; and for good cause he may discharge the whole ship’s crew.
4. It is made his duty to receive and take care of the personal property of any citizen of the United States who has died within his Consulate, and to send any balance which may be left after paying his debts and necessary expenses, to the treasury of the United States, to be held in trust for the legal claimants. He must also give notice to the Secretary of State of the death of such person.
4. For the purpose of carrying out and executing certain treaties made between the United States and China, Japan, Siam, and Turkey, Consuls to those countries have been empowered with judicial functions. They were allowed to act as judges, and to try and punish citizens of the United States who had committed crimes there. These, however, were extraordinary powers in special cases, and by no means common to the consular office.
5. In the absence of a minister or diplomatic agent of the United States, the President may authorize a Consul to perform the duties of such foreign minister; but these powers are rarely conferred on them. Their ordinary duties relate to commercial affairs, and to such as are before stated.
6. A Vice-Consul, or deputy Consul, is one appointed to act temporarily in case of sickness or absence of the Consul.
7. Our commerce has been extended to almost every part of the globe, and for this reason we need a great number of these officials. Their services are required at all great seaports, and at many smaller ones. The compensation varies according to the amount of business to be transacted by them, from $7,500 down to $500. Some do not receive any salary, but are allowed the fees they are authorized to charge for their services.
8. It is his duty to give his government and countrymen all such information as he possesses in relation to the laws and practices of the country to which he is sent, which it would be important for them to know; and especially is it his duty to look after the interests and welfare of his countrymen when they are within his Consulate, and to see that no wrong or injustice is done to them by the people or government where he resides.
CHAPTER VIII.
PASSPORTS.
1. These are written documents, in due official form, signed and sealed by the proper authority, to convey official information, or serve as a means of protection, and to readily distinguish the American Citizen abroad, or to give a permission or authority to go where those not having passports are forbidden to go. The passport conveys authentic information to whom it
The passport informs the world that the bearer of it is a citizen of the United States, and that he travels under its protection, and that it would demand and exact satisfaction of any one who wronged or injured him who bears such credentials.
2. In the United States, the Secretary of State is the officer authorized by law to issue passports. He has the authority also to cause them to be issued in foreign countries by our foreign ministers and consuls, under such restrictions and rules as may be designated by the President. This is allowed as a matter of convenience to our citizens who happen to be in foreign countries without them; who need their protection, and who would be subjected to much delay and expense by going or sending home to procure them.
Passports are not granted to any other than citizens of the United States, whether issued by the Secretary or by any diplomatic or consular agent of our government.
3. Besides these passports, which are given only to our own citizens when in foreign countries, or who intend to go there, there is another kind issued to foreigners who wish to go among the Indians in the Indian territory, or on the Indian reservations. Indeed, our own citizens are not allowed to go among them without permission. But foreigners cannot go without a passport from the Secretary of War, which specifies the route over which the bearer must pass, and the length of time he is allowed to remain among them. This is done to prevent unfriendly foreigners from fomenting mischief, or from exciting unkind feelings towards our government or people. Such unfriendly feelings have been created by foreigners, and we have often experienced the bitter fruits of it, especially in times of war.
4. Still another kind of passports is used in this country,
CHAPTER IX.
DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.
1. If the Executive Department that has charge of the public moneys is not highest in nominal rank, it certainly does not hold a less important and interesting place in the estimation of the country and of the world than the Department of State. Every part of the government is dependent on this for its efficiency. It is the heart of the country. The in-and-out-flowing of the tide of money from the central point marks the pulses of the nation’s prosperity. Especially has this been the case since the Civil War, and the immense developments and changes that followed it. The banking system, making the Treasury responsible for the issue of all the hundreds of millions of bank notes used in the business of the country, adds immensely to the importance of the United States Treasury.
2. The management of this Department is committed to
3. The financial policy adopted by the country depends very much on his views on that difficult question, and the interests and wealth of millions on the ability and integrity he possesses. He is therefore chosen on account of his real or supposed qualifications on questions of finance.
He is aided in his duties by an Assistant Secretary, a Comptroller and Second Comptroller, five Auditors, a Treasurer and his assistant, a Register and his assistant, a Commissioner of Customs, a Comptroller of the Currency and his deputy, and a Solicitor of the Treasury. All these have their offices in connection with the Treasury Department at Washington. In several of the large cities are sub-treasuries, each presided over by an assistant Treasurer, where public funds are received and disbursed. The Treasurers of the Mints are also, many of them, Assistant Treasurers of this Department. All these are appointed by the President and Senate in the same manner as the Chief Secretary.
4. The sums of money actually handled, and the accounts of all moneys received and disbursed without passing into the vaults of the Treasury, amount to many hundreds of millions annually, and require the constant service of some hundreds of clerks. These all need to have clean hands and pure hearts, which is, unfortunately, more rare among men of all classes than could be wished. Yet the whole is reduced to so accurate a system that a loss at any point immediately produces a disturbance in the whole machinery, and a short examination suffices to reveal the point of difficulty and the person responsible for it. Accordingly, losses and defalcations are seldom experienced in or near the central point of the Department. If they occur, which is sometimes the case, it is usually some officer at a distance who is found to be at fault, whose sphere
5. Every account must be carefully examined and approved by the proper officer before it can be presented for settlement and the money paid out, and whatever moneys may flow in, none can flow out but according to some law of Congress definitely appropriating it.
All officers having the handling of public funds are required to give security for the faithful discharge of their duties. This must, by the requirement of the law, be done before they can enter their respective places.
SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY.
- Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1789.
- Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Feb. 4, 1795.
- Samuel Dexter, Mass., Dec. 31, 1800.
- Albert Gallatin, Pa., May 14, 1801.
- George W. Campbell, Tenn., Feb. 9, 1814.
- Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., Oct. 6, 1814.
- William H. Crawford, Ga., Oct. 22, 1816.
- Richard Rush, Pa., Mar. 7, 1825.
- Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Mar. 6, 1829.
- Louis McLane, Del., Aug. 8, 1831.
- William J. Duane, Pa., May 29, 1833.
- Roger B. Taney, Md., Sept. 23, 1833.
- Levi Woodbury, N.H., June 27, 1834.
- Thomas Ewing, O., Mar. 5, 1841.
- Walter Forward, Pa., Sept. 13, 1841.
- John C. Spencer, N.Y., Mar. 3, 1843.
- George M. Bibb, Ky., June 15, 1844.
- Robert J. Walker, Miss., Mar. 5, 1845.
W. M. Meredith, Pa., Mar. 7, 1849. - Thomas Corwin, O., June 20, 1850.
- James Guthrie, Ky., Mar. 5, 1853.
- Howell Cobb, Ga., Mar. 6, 1857.
- Philip F. Thomas, Md., Dec. 10, 1860.
- John A. Dix, N.Y., 1861.
- Salmon P. Chase, O., Mar. 5, 1861.
- William P. Fessenden, Me., July, 1864.
- Hugh McCulloch, Ind., 1864.
- George S. Boutwell, March 11, 1869.
- W. A. Richardson, March 17, 1873.
- B. H. Bristow, Ky., June 3, 1874.
CHAPTER X.
THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. S.
1. Revenue, or the income of the government, is derived from various sources. A tax—or duty, as it is often called—laid on goods imported into the country, is one of the most important. It is easy for a government to manage without producing a very sensible effect on the people, and has been a favorite mode of raising a revenue with nearly all governments since commerce became general.
2. The sale of public lands has, in this country, been a source of large revenue; though the desire to encourage emigration and develop the unsettled parts has led the government to sell them for a nominal sum. Still, these lands were so attractive and extensive as to sell rapidly and produce a considerable income. The Post Office Department has been a source of income, in great part supporting itself. Duties paid on the tonnage of vessels, the forfeiture of goods smuggled, or
3. When all these are not sufficient, as in time of war, or when an immense war debt is to be paid, direct taxes are laid on the property and business of the country. This is called
THE INTERNAL REVENUE,
and is borne with more or less patience, according as the people regard the end to be gained important. The revenues of the States are mostly derived from this source. They are not allowed to raise their revenue from foreign commerce, since that would be a tax on goods liable to be paid by the people of another State.
4. The necessity of laying large direct taxes does not, in this country, often arise in case of the General Government; but during and after the gigantic Civil War between the North and South, when enormous expenses had to be met, and the credit of the government sustained, the direct taxes became very large indeed. In 1861 Congress passed the “Internal Revenue Law,” by which twenty millions of dollars were to be annually raised from direct taxes on houses and lands in each of the States and Territories.
By subsequent acts not only houses and lands were taxed, but almost every sort of property and business. Licenses were required for persons to carry on their profession, trade, or business; incomes were taxed; deeds, mortgages, notes, bonds, bank checks, and papers of almost every kind were invalid unless they had a revenue stamp upon them. Manufacturers had to pay a certain per-centage on whatever they made. Scarcely any calling, trade, profession, or business escaped it, directly or indirectly.
5. To carry out these provisions, the whole country was
6. The vast war debt, the large number of government officers employed in attending to the interests of so large and prosperous a country, the support of the army and navy, the great number of foreign representatives and agents of the government, and the public works necessary for the development or protection of the country, make a large revenue indispensable.
7. It is best when the people are free and intelligent that they be governed as little as possible—or rather that they govern themselves as much as possible, and that as few officials as may be live on the fruits of other people’s labor. There must necessarily be an army of them, at the least; but such arrangements should be made that public expenses may be reduced, to the lowest point, and republican simplicity everywhere reign.
The principle and habit of public economy should be earnestly insisted on, since the handling of immense sums of public money is much more demoralizing than the acquisition of
CHAPTER XI.
DUTIES AND TARIFFS.
1. Duty is a term used to designate a sum paid by foreign merchandise coming to our country for sale, for the privilege of entering and being offered to purchasers. Tariff is a rate, or scale, of duties.
2. Ever since intercourse has become frequent between different nations commerce has been occupied in effecting interchanges of the products and industries of each country with others. Each country has peculiarities that specially fit it for the production or manufacture of some article, or list of articles, which others would be unable to produce, or would produce at greater inconvenience and expense, and which is of high value to all, or many of the others. The social principle has proved to be of extreme value to the improvement of men, and to their happiness; and we might say that, in this unequal distribution of capacities in the lands, and the races who inhabit them, the exercise of the social principle, on a broad scale, was made, by nature, indispensable.
3. Each nation, then, devotes itself to its special features of production, and exchanges its surplus with others for what it wants of their different surplus, to mutual profit. Just as A is a farmer, and raises grain, while B is a mechanic. Each has a natural adaptation to the business he pursues, and each needs what the other produces. So they exchange, and each has the full benefit of the success and different genius and resources of the other. Commerce is the same in principle, and interchange becomes constantly more extensive.
4. Government naturally regulates commerce because it is one of the general interests of the country. It finds an indefinite amount of foreign merchandise waiting to enter to be put on sale. It was long ago discovered that here was a convenient mode of producing a government income without disturbing the people with a constant demand for money to pay its expenses. Whatever foreign goods had to pay for permission to enter, was quietly added to the price afterward, and so the people paid their taxes to the government in an indirect way in the form of a Duty. They pay the price asked, if it be within their means, without knowledge, or thought, of what part goes to the government, unless they study the subject carefully.
It has always been the case, then, that a government could get all the money it wanted, from this source, in ordinary times, with very little trouble. That mode is naturally a favorite with them. Whether it is the best way for the people is another question, which has been, at different times, very warmly debated in our government. It is not our place here to take up the argument, but it is worthy of a careful study by the people.
5. A Tariff of duties is established to carry on the government. There is another object that has had many advocates, and has quite commonly exerted an influence to raise the tariff on some things. It is stated in the preamble, or introduction, to the first act passed by the first Congress, on this subject, July 4th, 1789, “Whereas, it is necessary for the support of the government, for the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the encouragement and protection of manufactures, that duties be laid on goods, wares, and merchandise imported.” It was considered important to protect and encourage our manufactures, by putting so high a price on the same kind of foreign goods that ours would have the advantage and sell at a less price or greater profit.
This might have been a wise measure, in the early days of the country, when there were few manufactures. Whether it has been so since, or is so now, is not so clear.
6. Every man should make up his mind what is right and best and act as he sees to be most for the general good. It has two disadvantages. It embarrasses the interchange that we have described as so profitable, and under a high tariff sometimes practically forbids it. It is unsocial, and we declare by it, that we will, so far as possible, live within ourselves, and have as little to do with our neighbors as we can. Besides, it is our own people who have to pay the duty, mainly, if they use the foreign goods; or the higher price on domestic goods if they buy them; so that one class of the people, that is, the mass of them, pay another small class large sums to manufacture what might be bought from foreigners with less money. It is a fine thing for the manufacturers, but not quite so fine for those who buy them, unless they feel like making their countrymen a present for every piece of goods he will manufacture for them, beside the proper cost as made by others.
It has the advantage of encouraging industries of different kinds; and has been believed to contribute greatly to the general prosperity in that way. Some think it best to let all those things arrange themselves, and leave each nation to bring us what they can produce cheapest and sell them more of what we can produce cheapest. They believe this is the secret of prosperity, besides being more social. It is a question to be carefully examined. It seems probable, that, in the end, all nations will agree on this policy, and raise their revenue in some other way. It is perhaps too soon to expect that, as yet.
We have never been without a tariff, though there has been much discussion in Congress, and between parties, whether it should be protective or not. So it has often changed from low to high and back again. The necessities of our war, and the heavy debt, made it important, in the highest degree, to raise all the revenue we could, and the subject has not been much discussed for many years.
7. The Duties are mostly collected in the cities, and, as foreign goods come mainly by water, in the seaports of the country. Duties are often called Customs, and the places where
Places, designated for foreign vessels to present their goods for examination and collection of the duty, are called Ports of Entry. If they are delivered at some other place, where there is no custom house they are called Ports of Delivery.
8. Congress alone has power to lay these duties. There are two modes of imposing them; sometimes one and sometimes the other being adopted, according to the views of the Congress legislating. They are called specific and ad valorem duties. Ad valorem means, according to the cost, and is counted on the cost in the country the article comes from. Specific duties are so much on the article, without regard to the cost. On many things imported there is no duty, and they are called “free goods.”
Changes are continually made in the tariff to conform to the requirements of the Treasury, the desires of the people, and the changing views of the legislators.
DRAWBACKS.
9. When the duties on foreign goods have been paid, and they are afterwards exported, the duties which have been paid are refunded to the owner. The money thus paid back is called a drawback. All imported goods are entitled to drawback whenever they are taken out of the United States.
BOUNTIES ON EXPORTED GOODS,
take money out of, instead of putting it in the treasury, yet the government in a few cases has allowed bounties upon exported articles. Fish taken by American vessels, refined sugar and distilled spirits made from imported sugar and molasses, are examples. This was done to encourage domestic industry and enterprise.
CUSTOMS REVENUE FOR FIFTY-ONE YEARS.
A Comparative Statement showing the Customs Revenue, Amount of Dutiable and Free Goods Imported, and the Average Rate of Duty on Imports, every year from 1821 to 1871, inclusive.
| Year. | Receipts from Customs. | IMPORTS. | *Per cent. on dutiable. | *Per cent. on aggregate. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Free. | Dutiable. | Total. | ||||
| 1821 | $18,475,703 57 | $ 10,082,313 | $52,503,411 | $62,585,724 | 35.6 | 29.5 |
| 1822 | 24,066,066 43 | 7,298,708 | 75,942,833 | 83,241,541 | 31.7 | 28.9 |
| 1823 | 22,402,024 29 | 9,048,288 | 68,530,979 | 77,579,267 | 32.7 | 28.8 |
| 1824 | 25,486,817 86 | 12,563,773 | 67,985,234 | 80,549,007 | 37.5 | 31.6 |
| 1825 | 31,653,871 50 | 10,947,510 | 85,392,565 | 96,340,075 | 37.1 | 32.8 |
| 1826 | 26,083,861 97 | 12,567,769 | 72,406,708 | 84,974,477 | 34.6 | 30.7 |
| 1827 | 27,948,956 57 | 11,855,104 | 67,628,964 | 79,484,068 | 41.3 | 35.1 |
| 1828 | 29,951,251 90 | 12,379,176 | 76,130,648 | 88,509,824 | 39.3 | 33.8 |
| 1829 | 27,688,701 11 | 11,805,501 | 62,687,026 | 74,492,527 | 44.3 | 37.1 |
| 1830 | 28,389,505 05 | 12,746,245 | 58,130,675 | 70,876,920 | 48.8 | 40.0 |
| 1831 | 36,596,118 19 | 13,456,625 | 89,734,499 | 103,191,124 | 40.8 | 35.4 |
| 1832 | 29,341,175 65 | 14,249,453 | 86,779,813 | 101,029,266 | 33.8 | 29.0 |
| 1833 | 24,177,578 52 | 32,447,950 | 75,670,361 | 108,118,311 | 31.9 | 22.4 |
| 1834 | 18,960,705 96 | 68,393,180 | 58,128,152 | 126,521,332 | 32.6 | 15.0 |
| 1835 | 25,890,726 66 | 77,940,493 | 71,955,249 | 149,895,742 | 36.0 | 17.2 |
| 1836 | 30,818,327 67 | 92,056,481 | 97,923,554 | 189,980,035 | 31.6 | 16.2 |
| 1837 | 18,134,131 01 | 69,250,031 | 71,739,186 | 140,989,217 | 25.3 | 12.4 |
| 1838 | 19,702,825 45 | 60,860,005 | 52,857,399 | 113,717,404 | 37.8 | 17.3 |
| 1839 | 25,554,533 96 | 76,401,792 | 85,690,340 | 162,092,132 | 29.9 | 15.8 |
| 1840 | 15,104,790 63 | 57,196,204 | 49,945,315 | 107,141,519 | 30.4 | 14.1 |
| 1841 | 19,919,492 17 | 66,019,731 | 61,926,446 | 127,946,177 | 32.2 | 15.6 |
| 1842 | 16,662,746 84 | 30,627,486 | 69,534,601 | 100,162,087 | 23.1 | 16.6 |
| 1843 | 10,208,000 43 | 35,574,584 | 29,179,215 | 64,753,799 | 35.7 | 15.7 |
| 1844 | 29,236,357 38 | 24,766,881 | 83,668,154 | 108,435,035 | 35.1 | 26.9 |
| 1845 | 30,952,416 21 | 22,147,840 | 95,106,724 | 117,254,564 | 32.5 | 26.4 |
| 1846 | 26,712,668 00 | 24,767,739 | 96,924,058 | 121,691,797 | 26.5 | 21.9 |
| 1847 | 23,747,865 00 | 41,772,636 | 104,773,002 | 146,545,638 | 22.5 | 16.2 |
| 1848 | 31,757,071 00 | 22,716,603 | 132,282,325 | 154,998,928 | 24.0 | 20.4 |
| 1849 | 28,346,739 00 | 22,377,665 | 125,479,774 | 147,857,439 | 23.0 | 19.2 |
| 1850 | 39,668,686 00 | 22,710,382 | 155,427,936 | 178,138,318 | 25.2 | 22.3 |
| 1851 | 49,017,568 00 | 25,106,587 | 191,118,345 | 216,224,932 | 26.0 | 22.6 |
| 1852 | 47,339,326 00 | 29,692,934 | 183,252,508 | 212,945,442 | 26.0 | 22.2 |
| 1853 | 58,931,865 00 | 31,383,534 | 236,595,113 | 267,978,647 | 25.0 | 22.0 |
| 1854 | 64,224,190 00 | 33,285,821 | 271,276,560 | 304,562,381 | 23.5 | 21.1 |
| 1855 | 53,025,794 00 | 40,090,336 | 221,378,184 | 261,468,520 | 23.0 | 20.3 |
| 1856 | 64,022,863 00 | 56,955,706 | 257,684,236 | 314,639,942 | 25.0 | 20.3 |
| 1857 | 63,875,905 00 | 66,729,306 | 294,160,835 | 360,890,141 | 21.5 | 17.7 |
| 1858 | 41,789,621 00 | 80,319,275 | 202,293,875 | 282,613,150 | 20.0 | 14.8 |
| 1859 | 49,565,824 00 | 79,721,116 | 259,047,014 | 338,768,130 | 19.0 | 14.6 |
| 1860 | 53,187,511 00 | 90,841,749 | 279,872,327 | 362,166,254 | 19.0 | 14.7 |
| 1861 | 39,582,126 00 | †117,469,962 | 218,180,191 | 335,650,153 | 18.14 | 11.79 |
| 1862 | 49,056,398 00 | † 69,136,705 | 136,635,024 | 205,771,729 | 35.90 | 23.84 |
| 1863 | 69,059,642 00 | 44,826,029 | 208,093,891 | 252,919,920 | 33.19 | 27.30 |
| 1864 | 102,316,153 00 | † 54,241,944 | 275,320,951 | 329,562,895 | 37.16 | 31.04 |
| 1865 | 84,928,260 00 | 54,329,588 | 194,226,064 | 248,555,652 | 43.75 | 34.17 |
| 1866 | 179,046,630 00 | 69,728,618 | 375,783,540 | 445,512,158 | 47.65 | 40.12 |
| 1867 | 176,417,811 00 | 45,203,970 | 372,627,601 | 417,831,571 | 47.34 | 42.22 |
| 1868 | 164,464,596 00 | 29,379,149 | 342,245,659 | 371,624,808 | 48.05 | 44.25 |
| 1869 | 180,048,427 00 | 41,454,568 | 395,859,687 | 437,314,255 | 45.48 | 41.17 |
| 1870 | 192,878,265 00 | 46,560,050 | 415,817,537 | 462,377,587 | 46.37 | 41.71 |
| 1871 | 57,851,808 | 483,641,966 | 541,493,774 | |||
* The percentages in these columns are approximately, not absolutely correct, owing to the fact that the rates are computed upon the value of merchandise, etc., imported, instead of the value of goods entering into consumption in the respective years.
† These amounts do not include imports into the Southern ports during the war, from which no revenue was derived, namely, in 1861, $17,089,234; in 1862, $90,789; and in 1864, $2,220.
TONNAGE.
11. Tonnage designates the capacity of a vessel for carrying goods, which depends on the tons of weight it can receive, and is computed by assigning so much space, in height, length, and breadth, to each ton. A revenue, additional to that raised from the goods brought in vessels, is produced by a tax on the tonnage, or carrying capacity of vessels.
It is laid, not only on foreign vessels, trading with our seaports, but on our own vessels; a distinction being made so as to produce protection in favor of our own commerce and ship-builders. This also is paid by those who buy the goods brought in these vessels; since whatever duty is laid on the carrying trade must be made up by the higher price of the article brought. It is a way of levying taxes without directly calling the attention of the people to the fact.
12. It is worthy of careful consideration whether the country would not gain as much, by removing all these embarrassments to commerce with other countries, and different points on our coasts, as has been gained by free trade between the different States. The Constitution forbids taxes to be levied on inter-State commerce, or trade, and the country is undoubtedly the gainer by such a provision.
In 1790 a tonnage duty of 50 cents per ton was laid on foreign vessels, and six cents on American vessels. During the Civil War the tonnage duty was raised ten cents per ton on both foreign and American shipping.
Tonnage is collected only once a year by the collector of the port where the vessel happens to be.
CHAPTER XII.
COLLECTION OF DUTIES.
1. The Tariff, or Scale of Duties, laid by the Laws of Congress, on goods brought from foreign countries, requires to be paid when they are first introduced; or we might say, before they are introduced. All these goods are stopped as they approach the boundary line, or on the boundary line, and carefully examined; and they can go no farther until the duties imposed by Congress are received. When they have “passed the Custom House” they may be as freely sold as goods produced at home. No government officer has any right to interfere with them. They have paid the duty and have the freedom of the land. If they, by any chance or effort, get in by any other way, they are treated as stolen goods, and may be seized and confiscated. However much they may have cost their owners, however highly they may prize them, however unquestioned was their ownership before they passed the limits of the country, if they are introduced by any other than the Custom House Door, all right and title to them by the former owners ceases, and they become the property of the government.
2. So carefully is this point guarded that not only are government officers provided for the sole purpose of watching against this illegal introduction of goods, but a premium is offered to unofficial persons to secure their aid. Any one who can point out (and prove the fact) goods of any kind, liable to duty, that have not passed the custom house, and paid that duty, is entitled to half the value of the goods; the other half belonging to the government. Smuggling, as bringing goods
3. To secure this payment of Duty, then, a large number of officers of different grades are appointed, not only to examine the goods, determine the amount required to be paid, receive the money and keep all the accounts connected with it, but to take care that all the goods, of whatever kind, that are not permitted an entrance free of duty, shall duly pass examination, and be “entered,” as it is called, at the custom house.
4. The Head of these officers is the
COMMISSIONER OF CUSTOMS.
He superintends the Customs Bureau in the Treasury Department. He is nominated, and, with the consent of the Senate, appointed by the President. All the accounts of officers employed in the collection of duties on imports pass through his bureau for examination and adjustment; he prepares the forms of all papers used in this department of the revenue; directs the form of keeping the accounts; brings suits when necessary for the recovery of money due from officers of the department; and makes a report of any neglect of duty to Congress. A complete summary, therefore, of the past and present condition of the customs department may be found, at any time, in his office. With so perfect a system of supervision it does not matter how extensive the organization may be. No confusion is possible. There are more than 30,000 persons employed Under this officer; and they are scattered through the whole country where there are Ports of Entry or Delivery, as well as keeping guard along the whole coast line and frontier of the United States; yet they are under as complete discipline and
THE COLLECTORS.
5. Wherever there is a Port of Entry a Collector is appointed to superintend the collection of duties, receive the money, and transmit it to the United States Treasury. He is the principal officer of the Collection District connected with this Port, which often embraces several Ports of Delivery, and is required to see that all is properly conducted in his district. He receives his appointment directly from the President and Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the President.
6. As, in ordinary times, the most of the revenue required for the support of the government is derived from Customs, this is a responsible office. Great care is required to secure the services of competent and faithful men, and the bonds they are required to give are large. He nominates the subordinate officers connected with his custom-house, and the Secretary of the Treasury appoints them, if he sees no objection.
7. The Collectors take care that all the goods, on which Congress has imposed a duty, pay the amount due. To this end he often requires one or more deputies. The entire commerce of the part of the country falling in his district, with other countries, passes under his examination. He receives all reports, manifests, and documents required to be exhibited by all vessels, domestic and foreign, on their entry into his port, and all accounts of all the goods they have on board. On these he must estimate the duties, receive the moneys, or bonds securing their payment, and grant all permits for landing the goods. He transmits, quarterly, all the moneys collected in his department, with an accurate account of all the transactions of his office during the quarter, to the Secretary of the Treasury. These accounts pass to the Customs bureau, and the money to the Treasurer of the United States.
8. His duties, as described in the previous section, make him acquainted with all the imports of the country, in his District or Port. He is also required to examine the manifests of all the vessels, and the accounts of their cargoes, that leave his port for a foreign country. This secures a knowledge of all the exports of the country. It is his duty to give clearances, or permits, to all vessels leaving for foreign ports. It is unlawful for any vessel to depart without this document. A ship’s clearance can be properly given only when her manifest, or detailed account of the quantity, kind, and value of her cargo is ascertained to be correct.
9. We give the form of a ship’s Manifest, and also of a Clearance.
A SHIP’S MANIFEST.
“Report and manifest of the cargo laden on board of the ____, whereof ____ is master, which cargo was taken on board at the port or ports of ____, burthen ____ tons, built at ____, in the State of ____, and owned by ____, merchants at ____, and bound for ____.”
This, together with a particular description of the marks and numbers of every bale, box, case, barrel, bundle or parcel on board of the vessel, is the manifest. It must be given to the collector of whatever port the vessel arrives at; and the master of her must swear that it is in all respects a true and accurate account of all the cargo on board, to the best of his knowledge and belief.
10. The collector of the port can then compute the duties to be paid upon each article, and when these are paid, or secured to be paid, he gives permits to land the cargo, and deliver the goods to their respective owners. Then come in the duties of weighers, gaugers, measurers and inspectors of the customs, after permits are obtained to land the goods. If they are such as require to be weighed, gauged, or measured, these officers are sent to do it; and the inspector must allow nothing to leave the ship until he has examined the marks and numbers, to see if they correspond with the permit and the manifest. If he
A SHIP’S CLEARANCE.
This document is couched in the following terms:
“District of ____, Port of ____, ss.
“These are to certify, to all whom it may concern, that A. B., master or commander of the ship (brig, barque, schooner) burthen ____ tons or thereabouts, mounted with ____ guns, navigated with ____ men, ____. ____ built, and bound for ____, having on board ____, hath here entered and cleared his said vessel according to law.
“Given under our hands and seals, at the custom-house of ____, this ____ day of ____, one thousand ____, and in the ____ year of the Independence of the United States of America.”
This is signed by the collector and by the naval officer of the port, when the commander is prepared to depart with his vessel to his destination.
11. The compensation of collectors is not all given in the form of a salary, but in part the fees for services rendered, and part of the forfeitures of smuggled goods. In the larger ports it is enormous, but in the smaller ones is often insignificant. It is a common mode of doing business of this kind, and is supposed to stimulate the activity and secure the faithfulness of the officer in preventing frauds on the government. The working of this plan is sometimes complained of as inspiring an over-officiousness embarrassing to trade and unnecessarily annoying to importers; and as producing too great an inequality in incomes. It is difficult to make a system quite perfect. Whether this admits of improvement remains to be seen.
SURVEYORS
12. Are next in rank and authority to the Collectors. They
THE NAVAL OFFICER
13. Of a port, is another of the superintendents, appointed to oversee the collection of the revenue. His appointment depends on the President and Senate, and his compensation on the amount of business done in his port, in the same manner as the Collector and Surveyor. His duties are, to some extent, parallel to those of the Collector; or he may be called a local examiner and auditor of the Collector’s work and accounts, for the sake of accuracy and correctness. He receives copies of all manifests and entries, and computes the duties on all goods, keeping a separate record of them. He must countersign permits, clearances, certificates, debentures, and other documents issued by the Collector. He examines the Collector’s accounts, bonds, and expenditures, and certifies to them, if correct.
A great number of deputies and employees are required to carry out the details of the collection of duties, since the entire amount of imports into the country are required to be carefully examined.
REVENUE CUTTERS
14. Are employed to guard against smuggling. They are vessels of small size, some steamers, and others sailing vessels, properly manned and armed, of high powers of speed; and are stationed as a coast guard near the ports, and lines of ocean travel, to prevent the landing of imported goods before they have paid the duty. Their officers are appointed by the President and Senate.
They look after all the ships going into any port, or any that may approach the coast; board them when within four leagues (or 12 miles) of the coast; examine the manifest of the cargo and every part of the vessel; put proper fastenings on the
15. They are revenue officers, and under the control of the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Collectors at the ports near which they are stationed. In case the President judges it best, they may be called on, at his direction, to coÖperate with the Navy, and, in case they are disabled in the discharge of their duty at such times, are entitled to be treated in the same manner as officers and sailors in the Navy.
16. These vessels carry a pennant and ensign with such marks on them as the President may designate. If any vessel liable to seizure refuses to bring to at the direction of the commander of the Cutter, he is authorized to fire into it after having shown his pennant and ensign, and compel it to submit to be boarded and examined. Much depends on the vigilance of these revenue cutters, as the sums paid on goods imported amount to a great many millions of dollars, and want of due precaution would cause the income of the government to be defrauded of large sums.
The commanders of revenue cutters report all matters relating to their duties weekly to the Collector of the port.
CHAPTER XIII.
GOVERNMENT COINAGE.
1. The United States mint, located at Philadelphia, is one of the most important establishments of the government. An act of Congress, passed in 1792, was the first step towards its creation. Its design was, and its principal business has been,
2. The officers, who manage and conduct the operations of this establishment, are a Director, a Treasurer, an Assayer, a Melter and Refiner, a Chief Coiner, and an Engraver. They are all appointed by the President and Senate in the usual manner. The director appoints the assistants and clerks.
All must give bonds for the faithful performance of their respective duties upon which they enter under oath. The duties of these different officers may almost be known by the names they bear. The director is the head of the institution, and the others act under his general direction, each having his appropriate duties to perform. In the month of January of each year the director must make a report to the President of the operations of the mint and its branches for the preceding year.
3. Any person may take gold or silver bullion or ores to the mint and receive it back in coin, for a very trifling expense. Before it is coined, after its value has been determined by the assayer, the director will give a certificate for it, which is of the same value as the bullion deposited.
4. We have stated that the principal business at the mint is the conversion of the precious metals into coin or money. But this is not its exclusive business. Another part is to melt and assay these metals, and to run them into ingots or bars
Until 1835 the mint at Philadelphia was the only establishment in the United States for coining money. But in that year a law was passed establishing branch mints at New Orleans, in Louisiana; at Charlotte, in North Carolina; and at Dahlonega, in Georgia. In 1852, another branch was established in California; in 1862, another at Denver, in Colorado Territory; and in 1863, another at Carson City, in Nevada Territory, since made a State; in 1864, another at San Francisco, in California, and another at Dallas City, in Oregon. Except the one in California, but little has ever been done at these branches. They are all similar to the principal one at Philadelphia; and the laws relating to that are made to apply to these branches.
6. The Constitution gives Congress the exclusive right to coin money, and prohibits all the States from doing it. This Congress does by the laws it passes in relation to the subject, and the various officers and workmen employed to execute the work are only the agents of Congress.
The various coins which Congress has from time to time ordered to be made are of the following names and value:
| Gold. | Value. |
|---|---|
| Eagle, | $10 00 |
| Half-Eagle, | 5 00 |
| Quar. Eag., | 2 50 |
| Doub. Eag., | 20 00 |
| Three Dols., | 3 00 |
| One Dollar, | 1 00 |
| Silver. | Value. |
| Dollar, | $1 00 |
| Half-Dollar, | 50 |
| Quar. Dol., | 25 |
| Dime, | 10 |
| Half Dime, | 5 |
| Three ct. piece, | 3 |
| Copper. | |
| One cent, | |
| Two cents, | |
| Three cents, | |
| and formerly ½ c. | |
| But these are now discontinued. | |
7. Our coins are not made of pure gold and silver; a certain amount of other metals being added to produce a coin that will be less affected by the friction of constant use. This alloy, or mixture, of the precious metals is called Standard gold or silver, since a definite amount of the alloy is required in all the coinage of the government for currency purposes. It does not alter the value of the coin; that being dependent on the actual merchantable value of the sum of the metals used.
In addition to our own coins, Congress has, from time to time, passed laws declaring the value of foreign coins, and making them a legal tender. But these laws were all repealed by the act of 1857, and it was made the duty of the director of the mint to have them assayed, and to determine their weight, fineness, and value; for they are still used by banks and merchants, and pass at the value determined by the mint.
The mint, up to 1861, had coined in gold, silver, and copper coin, 800,662,475 pieces, worth $799,923,362.
THE UNITED STATES MINT.
Statement of Domestic Gold and Silver deposited at the United States Mint and Branches, for Coinage, to June 30th, 1872.
| From. | Gold. | Silver. | Gold and Silver. |
|---|---|---|---|
| California | $642,965,026.09 | $156,423.03 | $643,121,449.12 |
| Montana | 30,648,265.24 | 176,838.57 | 30,825,103.81 |
| Colorado | 20,338,420.96 | 1,114,543.43 | 21,452,964.39 |
| Idaho | 17,141,523.84 | 291,681.59 | 17,433,205.43 |
| Oregon | 11,594,979.33 | 1,863.74 | 11,596,843.07 |
| North Carolina | 9,865,252.97 | 44,110.95 | 9,909,363.92 |
| Nevada | 1,010,280.17 | 8,539,868.04 | 9,550,148.21 |
| Georgia | 7,232,346.96 | 403.83 | 7,232,750.79 |
| Virginia | 1,629,188.79 | —— | 1,629,188.79 |
| South Carolina | 1,379,121.92 | —— | 1,379,121.92 |
| Lake Superior | —— | 1,062,540.81 | 1,062,540.81 |
| Arizona | 975,401.39 | 39,873.08 | 1,015,274.47 |
| New Mexico | 823,021.29 | —— | 823,021.29 |
| Utah | 146,147.18 | 261,204.71 | 407,351.89 |
| Nebraska | 24,381.57 | 200,976.53 | 225,358.10 |
| Alabama | 213,750.66 | —— | 213,750.66 |
| Wyoming Territory | 138,878.12 | 86.48 | 138,964.60 |
| Tennessee | 81,529.69 | —— | 81,529.69 |
| Washington Territory | 67,745.38 | —— | 67,745.38 |
| New Mexico and Sonora | —— | 51,653.31 | 51,653.31 |
| Dakota | 5,760.00 | —— | 5,760.00 |
| Vermont | 5,611.97 | —— | 5,611.97 |
| Kansas | 1,009.62 | 468.00 | 1,477.62 |
| Sitka | 397.64 | —— | 397.64 |
| Maryland | 108.00 | —— | 108.00 |
| Other Sources | 85,226,912.42 | 2,751.15 | 85,229,663.57 |
| Parted from Silver | 4,690,402.30 | —— | 4,690,402.30 |
| Fine Bars | —— | 5,298,490.02 | 5,298,490.02 |
| Parted from Gold | —— | 5,821,721.97 | 5,821,721.97 |
| Total | $836,205,463.50 | $23,065,492.24 | $859,270,962.47 |
ASSAY OFFICE.
1. In 1853 the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to establish an office in the city of New York for the receipt, melting, refining and assaying of gold and silver bullion and foreign coins, and for casting the same into bars, ingots, or disks. The assistant treasurer of the United States in New York, is treasurer of this assay office, and the Secretary of the Treasury appoints such other clerks, assistants, and workmen as shall be necessary for the management of its business.
2. Persons having gold or silver bullion, ores or foreign coin, may deposit them in his office, and it will be refined and assayed (at no more cost than the actual expense of doing the work), its value ascertained, and the owner will be paid for it in coins of the same value and metal as that deposited. It is not coined in this office, but cast into bars, ingots or disks—either of pure metal or of standard fineness, as the owner may prefer—the true weight and value of which are stamped thereon; and the owner may either take them in payment for his bullion or foreign coin, or it will be coined for him at the United States Mint, if he wishes. The bars spoken of are often kept in that form, and are used as coin among banks, brokers, and merchants, who receive and pay large amounts of the precious metals. With them it passes as coin, for its exact weight and value are stamped upon it.
3. This establishment was located at New York more for the convenience of those who do business there, than for the necessity of such an institution; for at the mint at Philadelphia there is a department for doing the same work as is done here. But at New York there is a larger amount of foreign coin than in any other place, and it is often advantageous to its owners to have it converted into American coin, that it may be used with greater facility. Although many foreign coins do circulate in this country, but few know their value. Consequently they do not pass so readily; and for this reason they are melted and run into bars of known value, or re-coined into American money.
CHAPTER XIV.
NATIONAL BANKING.
1. The present banking system was established by an act of Congress in 1863. The plan is quite different from any before in use, and commends itself to the whole country by the stability it gives to the currency in use in the transaction of its business, and the security it furnishes against loss of values common under the old systems. They are managed by private parties and corporations, apart from the government, but under a certain degree of supervision, and by its authority. By the act referred to any number of persons not less than five may associate themselves together for the purpose of banking, by compliance with the following conditions:
2. First: They must, under their hands and seals, make a certificate which shall specify—
1. The name assumed by such association.
2. The place where its business is to be conducted.
3. The amount of its capital stock (which cannot be less than $50,000), and the number of its shares.
4. The names of its shareholders, and the number of shares held by each.
5. The time when such association shall commence business.
6. A declaration that said certificate is made to enable such persons to avail themselves of the advantages of this act.
3. This certificate must be properly acknowledged before some competent person, and must be sent to the comptroller of the currency in the Treasury Department, to be recorded and kept by him. When this, and all other acts which the law
4. In order to secure the holders of bills issued by these banks, they must deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, United States bonds bearing interest to an amount not less than one-third of the capital stock paid in. These bonds are safely kept by the Treasurer. The comptroller of the currency then issues to the bank an amount of bank notes equal to the amount of bonds thus deposited, less ten per cent. In case the bank should fail to redeem its circulating bills, its bonds are sold, and with the proceeds the comptroller of the currency redeems them, or orders them to be paid at the United States Treasury. The bonds held by the Treasurer as security for the redemption of the bills issued by the association, must be transferred to him in trust; thus giving him entire control of them in case it becomes necessary to sell them in order to redeem the bills of any association which may have failed to pay them on demand.
5. This act has brought a great number of banks into existence, besides organizing most of the banks formerly existing under State laws under this system; so that we have a nearly uniform system of banking all over the United States. The bills of these banks pass in any part of the country, which was not often the case formerly. In case the bank should be mismanaged, or fail to pay for any cause, there is ample security for their redemption deposited in the United States treasury, where they will be paid on presentation.
6. The bill-holder is also better protected against counterfeits
7. This act necessarily threw upon the Treasury Department a great increase of labor, and in order to provide for it a separate bureau was created, which is denominated the bureau of currency, the chief officer of which is called the comptroller of currency. He acts under the general direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. This bureau is charged with the execution of this and all other laws that may be passed by Congress respecting the national currency. The comptroller of the currency is appointed by the President and Senate, has a deputy, receives a salary of $5,000 per year, holds his office five years, has an official seal, gives bonds to the amount of $100,000, and takes and subscribes the oath of office prescribed by the Constitution and the laws. His duties are numerous and very responsible, he having hundreds of millions under his care.
The term national banks, given to these institutions, and national currency to the bills they issue, were given from the fact that they were organized by an act of Congress, and that the security for the redemption of their bills consists exclusively of national bonds; no other securities will be taken.
CHAPTER XV.
FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES.
1. The United States government belongs to its people. Those people own property estimated at upwards of thirty billions of dollars. The public lands belonging to the government are between one and one and a half billions of acres. Besides, the public domains contain gold, silver, iron, coal, and a large number of other mineral deposits, chiefly in regions worthless for agricultural purposes, of unknown, but ascertained to be, at least, a very great quantity—enough to make all its present inhabitants millionaires if (besides paying the debt) their value could be divided among them. The capacity of the country for production is very far beyond what is drawn from it now. The future will probably increase it a thousand fold, for we are yet a new people, and in the act of settling ourselves to the work of development.
We are very rich, if all our resources are taken into account, yet we are in debt. In five years from the commencement of the civil war the public debt had run up from less than one hundred million dollars to over two billion seven hundred millions. This we began to reduce at once, for as a nation we do not like to be in debt; and it was, December 1st, 1873, a little over two billion one hundred and fifty millions. The debt is, indeed, a trifle compared with our vast national property; but we do not wish to sell our property at a loss, nor disturb the regular course of business; so it stands to be gradually paid in the regular course of things, as we find it to be convenient.
It is a vast sum, but gives more trouble by reason of the
We add a table of the Public Debt for every year since 1791, a Statement of the debt in detail Dec. 1st, 1873, and various Statistics relating to the finances, resources, and business of the country.
THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES,
In Each Year, from 1791 to 1874.
| 1791 | 75,463,476.52 |
| 1792 | 77,227,924.66 |
| 1793 | 80,352,634.04 |
| 1794 | 78,427,404.77 |
| 1795 | 80,747,587.38 |
| 1796 | 83,762,172.07 |
| 1797 | 82,064,479.33 |
| 1798 | 79,228,529.12 |
| 1799 | 78,408,669.77 |
| 1800 | 82,976,294.35 |
| 1801 | 83,038,050.80 |
| 1802 | 80,712,632.25 |
| 1803 | 77,054,686.30 |
| 1804 | 86,427,120.88 |
| 1805 | 82,312,150.50 |
| 1806 | 75,723,270.66 |
| 1807 | 69,218,398.64 |
| 1808 | 65,196,317.97 |
| 1809 | 57,023,192.09 |
| 1810 | 53,173,217.52 |
| 1811 | 48,005,587.76 |
| 1812 | 45,209,737.90 |
| 1813 | 55,962,827.57 |
| 1814 | 81,487,846.24 |
| 1815 | 99,833,660.15 |
| 1816 | 127,334,933.74 |
| 1817 | 123,491,965.16 |
| 1818 | 103,466,633.83 |
| 1819 | 95,529,648.28 |
| 1820 | 91,015,566.15 |
| 1821 | 89,987,427.66 |
| 1822 | 93,546,676.98 |
| 1823 | 90,875,877.28 |
| 1824 | 90,269,777.77 |
| 1825 | 83,788,432.71 |
| 1826 | 81,054,059.99 |
| 1827 | 73,987,357.20 |
| 1828 | 67,475,043.87 |
| 1829 | 58,421,413.67 |
| 1830 | 48,565,406.50 |
| 1831 | 39,123,191.68 |
| 1832 | 24,322,235.18 |
| 1833 | 7,001,032.88 |
| 1834 | 4,760,081.08 |
| 1835 | 351,289.05 |
| 1836 | 291,089.05 |
| 1837 | 1,878,223.55 |
| 1838 | 4,857,660.46 |
| 1839 | 11,983,737.53 |
| 1840 | 5,125,077.63 |
| 1841 | 6,737,398.00 |
| 1842 | 15,028,486.37 |
| 1843 | 27,203,450.69 |
| 1844 | 24,748,188.23 |
| 1845 | 17,093,794.80 |
| 1846 | 16,750,926.33 |
| 1847 | 38,956,623.38 |
| 1848 | 48,526,379.37 |
| 1849 | 64,704,693.71 |
| 1850 | 64,228,238.37 |
| 1851 | 62,560,395.26 |
| 1852 | 65,131,692.13 |
| 1853 | 67,340,628.78 |
| 1854 | 47,242,206.05 |
| 1855 | 39,969,731.05 |
| 1856 | 30,963,909.64 |
| 1857 | 29,060,386.90 |
| 1858 | 44,910,777.66 |
| 1859 | 58,754,699.33 |
| 1860 | 64,769,703.08 |
| 1861 | 90,867,828.68 |
| 1862 | 514,211,371.92 |
| 1863 | 1,098,793,181.37 |
| 1864 | 1,740,690,489.49 |
| 1865 | 2,682,593,026.53 |
| 1866 | 2,783,425,879.21 |
| 1867 | 2,692,199,215.12 |
| 1868 | 2,643,753,566.38 |
| 1869 | 2,652,533,662.28 |
| 1870 | 2,509,270,608.00 |
| 1871 | 2,303,573,543.00 |
| 1872 | 2,197,743,440.72 |
| 1873 | 2,153,489,155.96 |
| Apr. 1874 | 2,152,690,728.62 |
| Oct. 1875 | 2,122,466,227. |
UNITED STATES BONDS.
Sixes of 1861.—Dated 1861, and redeemable in twenty years from January 1st and July 1st of that year. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable semi-annually—January 1st and July 1st. These Bonds were issued in three series: Under Act February 8th, 1861, $18,415,000; dated variously in 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861. $50,000,000; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, in exchange for 7-30’s, $139,317,150; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Act March 3d, 1863, and principal made especially payable in gold coin, $75,000,000; dated June 15th, 1864. Total issue, $282,732,150.
Five-Twenties of 1862.—Commonly termed Old Five-Twenties, dated May 1st, 1862. Redeemable after five years, and payable in twenty years from date. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable the first of May and November. Issued under Act February 25th, 1862, $514,771,600.
Five-Twenties of 1864.—Dated November 1st, 1864. Redeemable after five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1864 (principal specified as payable in gold), $3,882,500. Issued under Act June 30th, 1864, $125,561,300. Total issue, $129,443,800.
Five-Twenties of 1865.—Dated July 1st, 1865. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable January and July. They are redeemable in five years, and payable in twenty years. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes converted, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $372,346,350.
Five-Twenties of 1865.—Dated November 1st, 1865. Redeemable after five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, $197,777,250.
Five-Twenties of 1867. Dated July 1st, 1867. Redeemable in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of January and July. Issued under Act March 3, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $371,346,350.
Five-Twenties of 1868.—Dated July 1st, 1868. Redeemable in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of January and July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $39,000,000.
Ten-Forties.—Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten and payable in forty years. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable on the 1st of March and September on all Registered Bonds, and on all Coupon Bonds of the denomination of $500 and $1,000. On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest is paid annually, March 1st. Issued under Act March 3d, 1863, and Supplement, March 3d, 1864; principal, payable in gold, $194,291,500.
Fives of 1870.—Redeemable at the pleasure of the United States, after May 1, 1881, in gold. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable quarterly—February, May, August, and November 1st. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14th, 1870, and January 20th, 1871. Amount, $200,000,000.
U. S. Pacific Railroad Currency Sixes.—Dated January 16th, 1865, and variously thereafter. These Bonds are issued by the Government, under Acts July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to companies receiving their charter from Congress, which gives them the right to construct railroads to and from the Pacific Coast, and on the completion of each twenty miles of track, to receive at the rate of $16,000, $22,000, or $48,000 per mile, according to the difficulty of constructing the same. They are payable thirty years from date of issue, and are registered in Bonds of $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000. Amount issued to September 1st, 1870, $64,618,832. All of the Bonds are issued “Coupon” or “Registered.” Coupon Bonds can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Registered Bonds cannot be changed into Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in denominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000: the Registered Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000 and $10,000.
| States and Territories. | Real and Personal Estate. | Real and Personal Estate. | Real and Personal Estate. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1870. | 1860. | 1850. | |
| United States | $30,068,518,507 | $16,159,616,068 | $7,135,780,228 |
| States | 29,822,535,140 | 16,086,519,771 | 7,115,600,800 |
| Alabama | 201,855,841 | 495,237,078 | 228,204,332 |
| Arkansas | 156,394,691 | 219,256,473 | 39,841,025 |
| California | 638,767,017 | 207,874,613 | 22,161,872 |
| Connecticut | 774,631,524 | 444,274,114 | 155,707,980 |
| Delaware | 97,180,833 | 46,242,181 | 21,062,556 |
| Florida | 44,163,655 | 73,101,500 | 22,862,270 |
| Georgia | 268,169,207 | 645,895,237 | 335,425,714 |
| Illinois | 2,121,680,579 | 871,860,282 | 156,265,006 |
| Indiana | 1,268,180,543 | 528,835,371 | 202,650,264 |
| Iowa | 717,644,750 | 247,338,265 | 23,714,638 |
| Kansas | 188,892,014 | 31,327,895 | —— |
| Kentucky | 604,318,552 | 666,043,112 | 301,628,456 |
| Louisiana | 323,125,666 | 602,118,568 | 233,998,764 |
| Maine | 348,155,671 | 190,211,600 | 122,777,571 |
| Maryland | 643,748,976 | 376,919,944 | 219,217,364 |
| Massachusetts | 2,132,148,741 | 815,237,433 | 573,342,286 |
| Michigan | 719,208,118 | 257,163,983 | 59,787,255 |
| Minnesota | 228,909,590 | 52,294,413 | —— |
| Mississippi | 209,197,345 | 607,324,911 | 228,951,130 |
| Missouri | 1,284,922,897 | 501,214,398 | 137,247,707 |
| Nebraska | 69,277,483 | 9,131,056 | —— |
| Nevada | 31,134,012 | —— | —— |
| New Hampshire | 252,624,112 | 156,310,860 | 103,652,835 |
| New Jersey | 940,976,064 | 467,918,324 | 200,000,000 |
| New York | 6,500,841,264 | 1,843,338,517 | 1,080,309,216 |
| North Carolina | 260,757,244 | 358,739,399 | 226,800,472 |
| Ohio | 2,235,430,300 | 1,193,898,422 | 504,726,120 |
| Oregon | 51,558,932 | 28,930,637 | 5,063,474 |
| Pennsylvania | 3,808,340,111 | 1,416,501,818 | 722,486,120 |
| Rhode Island | 296,965,646 | 135,337,588 | 80,508,794 |
| South Carolina | 208,146,989 | 548,138,754 | 288,257,694 |
| Tennessee | 498,237,724 | 493,903,892 | 201,246,686 |
| Texas | 159,052,542 | 365,200,614 | 52,740,473 |
| Vermont | 235,349,553 | 122,477,170 | 92,205,049 |
| Virginia | 409,588,133 | 793,249,681 | 430,701,082 |
| West Virginia | 190,651,491 | —— | —— |
| Wisconsin | 702,307,329 | 273,671,668 | 42,056,595 |
| Territories | 245,983,367 | 73,096,297 | 20,179,428 |
| Arizona | $3,440,791 | —— | —— |
| Colorado | 20,243,303 | —— | —— |
| Dakota | 5,599,752 | —— | —— |
| District of Columbia | 126,873,616 | 41,084,945 | 14,018,814 |
| Idaho | 6,552,681 | —— | —— |
| Montana | 15,184,522 | —— | —— |
| New Mexico | 31,349,793 | 20,813,768 | 5,174,471 |
| Utah | 16,159,995 | 5,596,118 | 986,083 |
| Washington | 13,562,164 | 5,601,466 | —— |
| Wyoming | 7,016,748 | —— | —— |
THE AVERAGE WEALTH TO EACH INDIVIDUAL.
| 1. | New York | $1,483.27 |
| 2. | Massachusetts | 1,463.03 |
| 3. | Connecticut | 1,441.30 |
| 4. | Rhode Island | 1,366.28 |
| 5. | California | 1,140.15 |
| 6. | Pennsylvania | 1,081.31 |
| 7. | New Jersey | 1,038.49 |
| 8. | Ohio | 838.73 |
| 9. | Illinois | 835.34 |
| 10. | Maryland | 824.37 |
| 11. | New Hampshire | 793.66 |
| 12. | Delaware | 777.35 |
| 13. | Indiana | 754.58 |
| 14. | Missouri | 746.48 |
| 15. | Nevada | 732.72 |
| 16. | Vermont | 711.99 |
| 17. | Wisconsin | 665.90 |
| 18. | Michigan | 607.41 |
| 19. | Iowa | 601.03 |
| 20. | Oregon | 567.06 |
| 21. | Nebraska | 563.26 |
| 22. | Maine | 555.35 |
| 23. | Minnesota | 520.60 |
| 24. | Kansas | 518.36 |
| 25. | Kentucky | 457.46 |
| 26. | Louisiana | 444.51 |
| 27. | West Virginia | 431.32 |
| 28. | Tennessee | 395.89 |
| 29. | Virginia | 334.31 |
| 30. | Arkansas | 322.81 |
| 31. | South Carolina | 294.99 |
| 32. | Mississippi | 252.67 |
| 33. | North Carolina | 243.39 |
| 34. | Florida | 235.23 |
| 35. | Georgia | 226.47 |
| 36. | Alabama | 202.46 |
| 37. | Texas | 194.30 |
FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE STATES OF THE UNION.
| States. | Populat’n 1870. | Assessed Valuation. | Funded Debt. | Floating Debt. | Town, County, and City Debt. | Receipts from Taxes and Investments. | Expenditures. | Year ended. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | 996,992 | $143,139,262 | $5,661,800 | $600,108 | *$4,799,136 | $1,064,960 | $1,461,055 | Sept. 30, 1873 |
| Arkansas | 484,471 | 90,196,763 | 10,771,000 | 800,000 | 1,285,693 | 944,611 | 974,728 | Sept. 30, 1872 |
| California | 560,247 | 527,203,982 | 1,982,500 | 266,669 | *14,660,065 | 3,104,242 | 2,771,382 | June 30, 1873 |
| Connecticut | 537,454 | 348,855,457 | 4,970,000 | none | *9,813,006 | 2,654,465 | 1,528,693 | March 31, 1873 |
| Delaware | 125,015 | 64,787,223 | —— | —— | *526,125 | —— | —— | —— |
| Florida | 187,748 | 30,000,000 | 4,664,000 | 848,269 | *897,141 | 257,234 | 304,215 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Georgia | 1,184,109 | 243,620,466 | 8,186,500 | —— | *15,209,212 | 1,678,412 | 1,345,687 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Illinois | 2,539,891 | 884,731,999 | 2,060,151 | none | *37,300,932 | 4,049,543 | 3,762,328 | Nov. 30, 1872 |
| Indiana | 1,680,637 | 654,519,016 | 176,890 | none | *3,651,203 | 2,191,529 | 2,399,276 | Oct. 31, 1872 |
| Iowa | 1,194,020 | 366,076,206 | 300,000 | none | *7,508,635 | 1,154,993 | 1,182,340 | Oct. 31, 1873 |
| Kansas | 364,399 | 127,690,937 | 1,342,275 | 201,109 | *4,848,976 | 958,538 | 963,728 | Nov. 30, 1872 |
| Kentucky | 1,321,011 | 403,296,567 | none | —— | *15,061,004 | 2,016,494 | 2,029,718 | Oct. 10, 1873 |
| Louisiana | 726,915 | 228,666,654 | 21,801,800 | 2,291,608 | *28,065,707 | 4,312,034 | 4,371,429 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Maine | 626,915 | 224,552,406 | 6,186,100 | none | *8,556,724 | 1,334,860 | 1,147,544 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Maryland | 780,894 | 419,323,067 | 10,911,679 | none | *15,715,102 | 1,876,369 | 2,350,654 | Sept. 30, 1872 |
| Massachusetts | 1,457,351 | 1,696,599,969 | 25,876,104 | none | *40,940,657 | 5,661,295 | 5,465,882 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Michigan | 1,184,059 | 630,000,000 | 2,209,000 | none | *4,340,203 | 1,915,122 | 1,632,171 | Sept. 30, 1872 |
| Minnesota | 439,76 | 84,135,332 | none | none | *2,438,797 | 799,272 | 876,181 | Nov. 30, 1872 |
| Mississippi | 827,922 | 148,159,873 | 347,150 | 683,207 | *798,185 | 1,249,276 | 1,596,829 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Missouri | 1,721,295 | 572,293,377 | 18,748,000 | none | 32,537,776 | 3,467,742 | 3,526,113 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Nebraska | 122,993 | 69,873,819 | none | none | *1,841,964 | 529,352 | 369,808 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Nevada | 42,491 | 12,129,110 | 556,000 | none | *1,343,199 | 538,492 | 392,361 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| New Hampshire | 318,300 | 149,065,290 | 3,914,195 | 226,050 | 7,210,527 | 928,606 | 779,803 | May 31, 1873 |
| New Jersey | 906,696 | 603,665,497 | 2,796,300 | none | *19,858,104 | 2,491,195 | 2,515,556 | Oct. 31, 1872 |
| New York | 4,382,759 | 2,129,626,386 | 32,392,101 | none | 188,373,280 | 18,569,403 | 13,926,875 | Sept. 30, 1873 |
| North Carolina | 1,071,361 | 123,507,628 | 29,900,045 | 7,813,898 | *2,573,991 | 700,477 | 801,809 | Sept. 30, 1872 |
| Ohio | 2,665,260 | 1,524,323,118 | 8,583,546 | —— | 17,559,498 | 4,607,798 | 4,411,952 | Nov. 15, 1872 |
| Oregon | 90,923 | 34,744,460 | 290,477 | 76,884 | *111,903 | 337,316 | 384,987 | Sept. 9, 1872 |
| Pennsylvania | 3,521,951 | 1,313,236,042 | 27,303,495 | none | *57,915,469 | 7,048,637 | 4,666,702 | Nov. 30, 1872 |
| Rhode Island | 217,353 | 244,278,854 | 2,638,500 | none | *3,025,142 | 700,133 | 634,501 | April 30, 1873 |
| South Carolina | 705,606 | 183,913,337 | 15,851,627 | 5,306,398 | *5,409,320 | 1,658,083 | 1,655,601 | July 30, 1873 |
| Tennessee | 1,258,520 | 272,674,352 | 20,966,382 | 5,200,000 | *10,285,389 | 1,938,330 | 1,074,064 | Dec. 31, 1872 |
| Texas | 818,579 | 222,504,073 | 1,166,832 | 644,745 | *1,105,266 | 1,105,710 | 1,105,641 | Aug. 31, 1872 |
| Vermont | 330,551 | 102,366,300 | 380,000 | none | *2,592,200 | 627,490 | 348,075 | July 31, 1872 |
| Virginia | 1,225,163 | 365,437,708 | 30,478,741 | 1,289,405 | *8,530,416 | 2,421,945 | 2,761,310 | Sept. 30, 1873 |
| West Virginia | 442,014 | 132,356,703 | 15,239,371 | 644,703 | *561,767 | 679,690 | 719,545 | Sept. 30, 1873 |
| Wisconsin | 1,054,670 | 390,454,875 | 18,157 | —— | 8,880,029 | 1,624,559 | 1,648,023 | Sept. 30, 1873 |
| Total | 38,115,641 | $15,762,006,108 | $318,670,718 | $26,893,053 | $586,131,743 | $86,598,187 | $77,786,566 |
CHAPTER XVI.
WAR DEPARTMENT.
Men, unfortunately, have never been able to so arrange their mutual relations as to dispense with violent and deadly contests. Although they are less frequent and shorter now than formerly, they are more costly and more destructive, and every nation is still, as formerly, obliged to anticipate the possibility of war and to make provision for its sudden occurrence, that it may not be borne down and overwhelmed by the first shock. It is an event so probable, even, and especially if the country should be in a defenseless state, that it has become a maxim of prudence with statesmen to avoid war by being prepared for it. The nation that can best repel an attack is least likely to be attacked.
Most governments, like our own, had their birth and early history in the confusion and devastation of that great destroyer of life and property; and it is natural that the first leisure of peace should be occupied in preparing themselves, in the most effective manner possible, for both defensive and offensive operations in case of its return.
The Constitution contemplates the existence of an army and navy for warlike purposes, and makes the President Commander-in-chief of both. The first Congress assembled under the Constitution hastened, in its first session, to provide him an army and navy to command by organizing the Department of War. At its head was placed the Secretary of War, and so necessary was it deemed to the dignity and security of the nation that he was made one of the principal officers of the government, having a seat in the cabinet and being regarded as one of the advisers of the Chief Magistrate. He is appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. A Chief Clerk, to be appointed by the Secretary, was
At first the affairs of the national navy were managed by the Secretary of War. This was changed, as we shall see, when our commerce and foreign relations became more important.
The Secretary of War ranks next to the President in military authority and dignity, and has the whole oversight, under him, of the army and its affairs. He makes out military commissions to be signed by the President, has the care of providing for the support, clothing, pay, and equipment of the army, and of all military stores required to keep the army in efficient drill, and in readiness against a possible war. He has the care of all books, records, and papers relating to the army and to military affairs. The names, grades, time of enlistment, term of service, and time of mustering out of all officers and privates in the army, whether in the regular or volunteer service, are to be found in his office. All military accounts are kept and adjusted under his supervision. These cares and duties have become so numerous and important as to require a careful organization of the Department into sub-departments, or bureaus, as the Commissary’s, the Quartermaster’s, and the Ordnance bureaus. The general management of the whole depending on the Secretary of War, he evidently requires to be a man of judgment, thoroughly versed in military affairs, and of eminent organizing ability.
A Solicitor, to have charge of the legal business of this Department, was provided for by law in 1863, to be appointed by the President and the Senate.
SECRETARIES OF WAR.
- Henry Knox, Mass., Sept. 12, 1789.
- Timothy Pickering, Pa., Jan. 2, 1795.
- James McHenry, Md., Jan. 27, 1796.
- James Marshall, Va., May 7, 1800.
- Samuel Dexter, Mass., May 13, 1800.
- Roger Griswold, Ct., Feb. 3, 1801.
- Henry Dearborn, Mass., March 5, 1801.
- William Eustis, Mass., March 7, 1809.
- John Armstrong, N. Y., Jan. 13, 1813.
- James Monroe, Va., Sept. 27, 1814.
- William H. Crawford, Ga., March 2, 1815.
- Isaac Shelby, Ky., March 5, 1817.
- G. Graham, Va., April 7, 1817.
- John C. Calhoun, S. C., Oct. 8, 1817.
- James Barbour, Va., March 7, 1825.
- Peter B. Porter, N. Y., May 26, 1828.
- J. H. Eaton, Tenn., March 9, 1829.
- Lewis Cass, Mich., Aug. 1, 1831.
- Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., March 3, 1837.
- Joel R. Poinsett, S. C., March 7, 1837.
- John Bell, Tenn., March 5, 1841.
- John McLean, O., Sept. 13, 1841.
- John C. Spencer, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1841.
- James M. Porter, Pa., March 8, 1843.
- William Wilkins, Pa., Feb. 15, 1844.
- William L. Marcy, N. Y., March 5, 1845.
- George W. Crawford, Ga., March 6, 1849.
- Charles M. Conrad, La., Aug. 8, 1850.
- Jefferson Davis, Miss., March 5, 1853.
- John B. Floyd, Va., March 6, 1857.
- Joseph Holt, Ky., Dec. 30, 1860.
- Simon Cameron, Pa., March 5, 1861.
- Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Jan. 13, 1862.
Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., 1868. - J. M. Schofield, 1868.
- John A. Rawlins, Ill., Mch. 5, ’69. Died Sept. 6, ’69.
- Wm. T. Sherman, Sept. 9, 1869.
- Wm. W. Belknap, Oct. 25, 1869.
- ” ” reappointed March 17, 1873.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE UNITED STATES ARMY.
1. The military successes of the United States would seem to prove undeniably, that, if the nation had adopted a career of conquest as did Ancient Rome, it might have played an important part in the history of warlike peoples. The undisciplined militia shut up a strong army in Boston in 1774, and, had not their powder failed, would very likely have forced the British to evacuate that place immediately after the battle of Bunker Hill.
2. Washington’s army, made up in large part of militia, seemed always on the point of dissolution, and yet the British, after spending more than a hundred millions in fitting out armies against them, and possessing the important superiority of free movement on the sea, for the transportation of forces easily and rapidly to any desired point, never could gain a permanent foothold, though opposed only by a ragged, famished, and half disorganized army.
3. The war of 1812—the Mexican War—and the Civil War, all bear testimony to the excellence of the material for military operations to be found among us. Yet we are a peace loving people. The government has never had more than the skeleton of an army in times of peace. While the Great Powers of Europe keep up armies of half a million of men, our army, very soon after the late gigantic war, was reduced
4. By these means military organizations are kept up in every part of the country, together with some knowledge of the military art. These, in time of war or domestic insurrection, may be called out with but a few days’ notice; and a large army of citizen soldiers can be raised in a very short time. With such facilities for raising men, it is unnecessary to keep a standing army of much magnitude. A few thousand men to guard our fortifications and military posts are sufficient.
The late civil war between the South and the North gave ample evidence of this; for when it became necessary to raise a million of men, it was done in a short time, and after a little practice they became good soldiers.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE MILITARY ACADEMY.
1. The success of military affairs in time of war depends, in great measure, on a thorough knowledge of the science of war, and especially of engineering, so often requiring to be applied with haste and accuracy to the construction or destruction of military defenses. It requires a complete knowledge of certain branches of mathematics, and an understanding of their application to warlike purposes. Various other special
A MILITARY ACADEMY
was established. It is located on the west bank of the Hudson river, at West Point, in the State of New York, and about 50 miles from the city of New York, and is one of the government institutions. It had its origin in an act of Congress passed as early as 1802. Under this act this far-famed military school was commenced, but on a scale, in every respect, very much inferior to what it has since become.
2. Its name explains its character and objects. It was established and has been continued at a great expense, for the purpose of teaching and training up young men in the science and art of war, that in any emergency the country might have a sufficient number of men, educated and skilled in all such arts and sciences as appertain to war. Hence, mathematics, engineering, gunnery, drawing, natural and experimental philosophy and military tactics, are among the principal branches taught. In all of these, able professors give instruction to the cadets, as the pupils are called. Chemistry, geology, and the French language are also taught at this institution. The instruction is thorough, the discipline excellent, and some of the graduates of this celebrated school rank high among the scientific men of the country.
3. Congress controls and regulates this establishment, as it does all other departments, institutions, and works belonging to the government. It enacts all laws relating to its officers, professors, and cadets, and to the management of the institution.
4. By a law passed in 1843, the number of cadets to be admitted was made to correspond with the number of Senators and Representatives from each State. Every State and Territory is entitled to send as many cadets as it has Senators
5. In addition to these, it is provided by the same act, that ten more cadets may be appointed at large; i. e., without regard to Congressional districts. In order to be admitted as a cadet, the candidate must be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic; must not be under 14 nor over 21 years of age; and must sign articles, agreeing to serve the United States eight years. After he has finished his studies and has graduated, he is considered as a candidate for a commission in the army, according to the duties he may be competent to perform.
6. The Military Academy may be considered a branch of the War Department. Men who have been educated there have rendered the country signal service in times of war, have made able commanders, and have proved themselves thoroughly skilled in military science. Not only in the military service has it been a benefit to the country, but in the civil walks of life. Many of its graduates have distinguished themselves as engineers, astronomers, and in other scientific professions and useful employments.
7. There is an annual examination of the cadets, and of the general affairs of the institution, by a committee appointed by the President, for that purpose.
It is composed of Congressmen and military officers. It is the duty of these examiners to attend the examination, inspect its discipline, and course of instruction, look after its fiscal affairs, and all other matters relating to the Academy, and report the same to the Secretary of War, for the use of Congress.
CHAPTER XIX.
DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL.
We have seen that the government can be sure of the support of the citizens in time of war and that they furnish the best kind of material of that description for military purposes. An army of great effectiveness can be organized in a comparatively short time, when important interests of the country are at stake. Not so, however, with the arms they require to use for offensive purposes. These require time and skilled workmen to construct them. They are therefore kept in readiness for use in Depots constructed for the purpose.
As early as 1794, Congress enacted that three or four arsenals and magazines, with an armory attached to each, should be established for the safe keeping of military stores. An arsenal is a place where arms and military stores are kept. An armory is a place where arms are made or repaired. The armories where arms are manufactured are at Springfield, in Massachusetts, and at Harpers’ Ferry, in Virginia. But there are many others where they are repaired.
In 1808, the President was authorized to purchase sites and to erect as many more arsenals and manufactories of arms as he might deem expedient. Each of these establishments was formerly under the direction of a superintendent; but they are now placed under the direction of the Ordnance Department. The office of superintendent of the armories at Springfield and Harpers’ Ferry, was also abolished in 1842; and its duties have since been performed by such officers of the ordnance corps as were designated by the President. In each armory there is employed a master armorer, who superintends the workmen. In addition to those already named there are arsenals and armories at Pittsburgh and Bridesburg, in Pennsylvania; at Washington City; at Watervliet, in New York; Watertown,
CHAPTER XX.
ARTICLES OF WAR.
1. An army is designed, in idea, to supply a powerful instrument of offense and defense, that shall so thoroughly organize and fuse together a large number of individuals that the whole shall act as one, and be perfectly under the control of the directing mind. An army fully realizing this idea, would suppress, in its military acts, all thoughts and sentiments of its individuals, and be used by its commanding general as he would use his own hand, arm and foot. It should move at his will, strike where, as long and as heavily as he saw best, and be to him a perfect machine as to obedience.
2. This idea is seldom more than partially realized; but it is the aim of all military drill, discipline, and law. The Articles of War are the body of laws enacted by Congress defining the relations of soldiers to their officers, so as to secure as fully as possible among a free people this thorough subordination, defining the conduct of the soldier toward his superior, prescribing the duty of the officer, and securing as far as possible in connection with such subordination the rights of the soldier.
3. They contain general directions concerning the organization, enlistment, and discharge of men, rules for leaves of absence, punishment for absence without leave, or for desertion, and other penalties for conduct improper or criminal in a soldier. Many of these rules are very strict and the penalties severe, since a neglect to obey might endanger the safety of an army or the country, or interfere with the most important operations. War is a very exacting pursuit.
4. It is relaxing also in some directions and rules are made requiring, and often without effect, obedience to some of the most common principles and practices of morality. It often becomes quite impossible to enforce these amid the fierce excitement and wild disorder of active warfare.
5. Offenses committed in the army are not tried before a civil tribunal, but by a military court called a “Court Martial,” for the guidance of which a special code of rules is prepared. These are characterized by the brevity, decisiveness, and summary action that is so important to the effectiveness of all military affairs. The decisions of a court martial may impose all punishments even to condemning a man to death; but they are subject to modification, or commutation, or even may be wholly set aside by the President of the United States, who is Commander-in-Chief of the Army.
The Articles of War relate to all things important to the welfare, effectiveness, and safety of an army, and aim to provide for the comfort and protect the rights of the individual as well as circumstances permit. They consist of one hundred and one articles. The first one requires every officer in the army to subscribe to them before he enters on his duties.
CHAPTER XXI.
MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS.
1. It is plainly a dictate of humanity that a government should provide for the comfort and skillful treatment of those persons who are wounded in its service, or who become diseased under the hardships of a military life and are disabled from active duty. Our century is specially distinguished by the benevolent care bestowed on the indigent and the suffering, in all civilized countries, and we have reason to expect that the
2. This has been done, and all the thoughtful attention that the case called for has been given to hospitals and asylums for the disabled and suffering, both of the Army and Navy, equally in peace and war.
3. In 1851, Congress passed an act for the establishment of military asylums, for the purpose of making the same provision for wounded and disabled soldiers as had already been made for that class of seamen. These institutions are located in different sections of the country where deemed most eligible and convenient for those who need such a place of refuge. They are placed under the government of a board of commissioners, consisting of the general in chief, and eight other military officers of high rank, who submit their acts to the Secretary of War for his approval.
4. The officers of these asylums must be taken from the army, and consist of a governor, a deputy governor, and secretary, who is also treasurer. The funds for their support are raised by a tax of twenty-five cents per month on the soldiers, to which are added the fines and penalties adjudged against soldiers by courts martial, with forfeitures for desertion, &c.
Persons receiving pensions from the government may be admitted into these asylums upon condition that they surrender their pensions to the use of the institution while they remain in it.
The commissioners are authorized to buy sites and buildings for these institutions, and to receive donations of them. They also furnish them with whatever is necessary for the comfort of the inmates, and make such laws and regulations for their government as they deem proper.
Deserters, mutineers, and habitual drunkards, are excluded from the benefits of these asylums.
INSANE ASYLUM.
5. Among these benevolent institutions provided by a generous government for the support of those who have faithfully
6. The superintendent must be a physician. There is a farm attached to the asylum, which is under the direction of the superintendent, who receives patients upon the order of the Secretary of the War, or the Navy, and upon the order of the Secretary of the Interior. He may receive indigent insane persons residing in the District of Columbia. If other than indigent persons are admitted, they must pay for the privilege a sum not less than the cost of their support.
7. The military hospitals in time of war are for temporary purposes, and are established wherever the army happens to be, and especially near where the great battles have been fought, that immediate relief may be given to the sick and wounded. These are established by the commanders of the army, and are under their control. And here let it be recorded to their praise, that since military hospitals were known, never have any been seen which for order, cleanliness and efficiency in administering to the comfort and care of the sick and wounded soldiers, surpassed those of the United States during the late civil war.
CHAPTER XXII.
NAVY DEPARTMENT.
The position of the United States naturally gives it great prominence as a naval power. Situated between the two great
The War of Independence was much increased in length and difficulty by the want of a navy, the maritime resources of England giving her a great superiority in striking suddenly, and in force, at distant points.
It was natural, then, that so important an arm, for both attack and defense, should be prepared to act with energy, and this was one of the first cares of the new government; and so efficient did this branch of national strength become in the thirty years of peace, to the war of 1812 with England, that the easiest and some of the most important successes of the Americans, in that conflict, were on the sea.
The care of Naval affairs was, at first, committed to the Secretary of War. In 1798 it was erected into a separate Department, and a Secretary placed at its head. He was entitled to a seat in the Cabinet, as one of the advisers of the President, and received his appointment by nomination of the President and concurrence of the Senate, in the same manner as the Heads of other Departments.
As the President is the highest officer, in command, in the Navy, he ranks as second, and acts under his direction. It is his duty to procure naval stores and materials, and to oversee the places where they are deposited; to attend to the construction, equipment, armament, and employment of vessels of war, to make out the commissions of naval officers; to see that efficiency and discipline are maintained in the service; and to assume the control of the movements of the vessels of war that are kept cruising in every sea for the protection of our
3. A chief clerk was formerly the second officer in rank in the Department, but, in 1861, provision was made, by Congress, for an Assistant Secretary, who should act as Secretary in the absence of that officer.
Formerly there were five bureaus in this department, but in 1862, three more were added, making eight, as follows:
- 1. A Bureau of Yards and Docks.
- 2. A Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting.
- 3. A Bureau of Navigation.
- 4. A Bureau of Ordnance.
- 5. A Bureau of Construction and Repairs.
- 6. A Bureau of Steam Engineering.
- 7. A Bureau of Provisions and Clothing.
- 8. A Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.
The President and Senate appoint all the heads of these bureaus, and select them principally from officers of high rank in the navy. They are all appointed for four years.
The Secretary appoints all the numerous clerks employed in the various bureaus and assigns their duties.
He must annually report to Congress the condition of his department, the manner and amount of all expenditures, furnish estimates for the expenses of the following year, and give such advice in regard to the naval interests of the country as his intimate knowledge of that branch of the service may suggest. He requires an intimate knowledge of maritime affairs, and of International law, and a high and enlightened appreciation of the policy to be pursued in our official and commercial intercourse with all foreign nations.
The following list embraces the names of all the Secretaries of the Navy, from George Cabot, the first, to George M. Robeson, the present incumbent:
- George Cabot, Mass., May 3, 1798.
- Benjamin Stoddert, Mass., May 21, 1798.
Robert Smith, Md., July 15, 1801. - J. Crowninshield, Mass., May 3, 1805.
- Paul Hamilton, S. C., March 7, 1809.
- William Jones, Pa., Jan. 12, 1813.
- B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Dec. 17, 1814.
- Smith Thompson, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1818.
- John Rogers, Mass., Sept. 1, 1823.
- S. L. Southard, N. J., Sept. 16, 1823.
- John Branch, N. C., March 9, 1829.
- Levi Woodbury, N. H., May 23, 1831.
- Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., June 30, 1834.
- J. K. Paulding, N. Y., June 20, 1830.
- G. E. Badger, N. C., March 5, 1841.
- Abel P. Upshur, Va., Sept. 13, 1841.
- David Henshaw, Mass., July 24, 1843.
- T. W. Gilmer, Va., Feb. 12, 1844.
- John Y. Mason, Va., March 14, 1844.
- George Bancroft, Mass., March 10, 1845.
- John Y. Mason, Va., Sept. 9, 1846.
- William B. Preston, Va., March 7, 1849.
- William A. Graham, N. C., July 20, 1850.
- J. P. Kennedy, Md., July 22, 1850.
- J. C. Dobbin, N. C., March 5, 1853.
- Isaac Toucey, Ct., March 6, 1857.
- Gideon Welles, Ct., March 5, 1861.
- Adolph E. Borie, Pa., March 5, 1869.
- George M. Robeson, N. J., June 25, 1869.
- ” ” reappointed March 17, 1873.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE UNITED STATES NAVY.
1. The original thirteen States were all on the Atlantic coast, and had each one or more sea ports. They were naturally given to commerce, and the second Continental Congress, in December, 1775, resolved to form a navy of thirteen vessels of war. Eight were soon fitted out; but the superiority of England on the sea, and the great financial difficulties with which Congress had to struggle during, and for some years after, the Revolutionary War, made it impossible to give any great degree of development to naval affairs. The sea swarmed with American privateers during the war, and many hundreds of English merchant vessels were captured; but Congress never was able to collect a formidable fleet. The daring exploits of Paul Jones, in European waters, and the bold and successful raids of Privateersmen under Letters of Marque and Reprisal gave indication of what might be looked for in the future, but they could not cope with British fleets.
2. The Navy Department was for some time under the control of the Secretary of War; but, as the finances began to improve, care was taken to develop this important branch of national power, and a special Secretary appointed. In the war of 1812 with England 25 years of peace had unfitted the people for great immediate success in the army; but the navy was the pride and glory of the nation. The disasters attending military operations for the first year or two were more than compensated by the brilliant and solid advantages gained by our men of war.
3. This gave a great impulse to the naval tendencies of the nation, and it soon became the settled determination of the people to supersede England as the strongest naval power. She had been Mistress of the Seas; there were strong reasons for our ambition to become Masters, at least in American waters. We had an extensive line of coast, and our “Monroe Doctrine,” that Americans ought to rule America, and that European governments should never be permitted to acquire a preponderating influence in North America, rendered a strong navy important. Our people, however, are so largely commercial that skillful mariners are always at command; and the government has never maintained, in time of peace, a very large naval force.
4. What they can do in time of need was demonstrated during the Civil War, when the navy was increased in two years by more than 400 vessels—many of them very expensive and powerful; proving in actual conflict the inability of the strongest land fortresses to resist them. The thousands of miles of the Atlantic and Gulf coast blockade, that was rendered so effective as to smother the Confederate government, so to speak, destroying its finances by rendering its cotton unavailable, is the best comment on the naval resources of the United States. The extreme boldness and vigor with which the Confederate cruisers that managed to escape the blockade fell on our merchant vessels, and laid waste our commerce, is another point in the argument; for they were Americans, and demonstrated the natural prowess of Americans on the sea, of which we could well be proud but that it did fatal harm to our mercantile marine.
5. Not half of the vessels belonging to the navy are, however, now (in time of peace) in commission—that is, in active service. The rest are either laid up, or in process of repair. Most of those in commission are employed in what is called squadron service. The Secretary of the Navy in a late report enumerates seven of these squadrons; viz.: the European, the Asiatic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North
6. The squadrons are under command of a high naval officer of the rank of commodore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flag ship of the squadron. Many of our naval officers have distinguished themselves for bravery, skill, and patriotic devotion to their country, and have occupied the highest positions of honor, and the most exalted places in the esteem and affection of their countrymen.
In 1862, Congress enacted that there should be nine grades of officers in the navy, and that their corresponding rank with military officers should be as follows:
| 1. | Rear-Admiral | with | Major-General. |
| 2. | Commodores | ” | Brigadier-Generals. |
| 3. | Captains | ” | Colonels. |
| 4. | Commanders | ” | Lieutenant-Colonels. |
| 5. | Lieut.-Commanders | ” | Majors. |
| 6. | Lieutenants | ” | Captains. |
| 7. | Masters | ” | First-Lieutenants. |
| 8. | Ensigns | ” | Second Lieutenants. |
| Midshipmen have no corresponding rank in the army. | |||
CHAPTER XXIV.
NAVY YARDS.
1. We have seen that the Secretary of the Navy has several different Bureaus, having each its separate part of naval interests and stores to care for. The material for the equipment of the army is, in large part, stored in arsenals and armories; in the navy in or near Navy Yards. Here are gathered such stores and materials as are required for the construction or repairs of vessels, and hundreds of skilled workmen, constantly employed in rendering the navy effective; replacing vessels that have become unseaworthy, repairing damages, or building such vessels of special construction as the varying demands of the service may require.
2. These are established at different places along the coast, most convenient for the purpose. There is one at Philadelphia, Pa., at Brooklyn, N. Y., at Portsmouth, Va., at Pensacola, Fla. Here vessels are laid up when not in “commission” or active service, or are sent for repairs, or to obtain their stores before departing to their distant stations. All the officers necessary for keeping all these matters in order are stationed at these yards; and the Navy Department, by these means, preserves the same perfect system of organization and efficiency as we have seen to characterize other branches of the executive administration.
CHAPTER XXV.
THE NAVAL ACADEMY.
1. Naval affairs, quite as much as military, perhaps even more, require the aids of science, and a careful and thorough
2. This school is now established at Annapolis, in the State of Maryland, near Washington. Like the Military Academy, it has its superintendent and professors. The pupils are called midshipmen. They are taught navigation and such other branches of science as are necessary to make them good seamen and naval officers. They are selected upon nearly the same plan as cadets. Each Congressional District in every State and Territory is entitled to send two students to be educated at the Academy. The District of Columbia is also entitled to send two. Besides which, the President is allowed to appoint ten additional ones at large, and three more from the boys enlisted in the navy.
3. After their graduating examination, if they pass, they are commissioned as ensigns in the navy, and rank according to merit. Before admission, they are examined according to the regulations made by the Secretary of the Navy, and must be between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years, sound, robust, and of good constitution.
4. The course of study in this, as well as in the Military Academy, is adapted to the profession which the students are expected to follow—the one in the navy, the other in the army. More are educated at these great national schools than the government needs in time of peace. Many of the graduates are engaged in civil employment. Thus these institutions have been of great service to the country, outside of the army and navy, for they have added to the number of well-educated and scientific men, who may be useful in any of the walks of life.
Both of these institutions are supported at the expense of the government. The tuition and board of cadets in one, and of the midshipmen in the other, costs them nothing.
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY.
1. An observatory is a building erected for astronomical purposes, and supplied with the necessary apparatus for studying the heavens. A thorough knowledge of certain portions of astronomy is indispensable to the commander of a vessel, since it is by means of this alone that he can ascertain his exact position on the open ocean out of sight of land. Nautical Science and Astronomy have advanced hand in hand; and to perfect the former as much as possible the United States Government established the Naval Observatory. This institution is located in Washington, and was originated by act of Congress in 1842, and put in operation in 1844.
2. This institution owes more to that enlightened and truly patriotic President, John Q. Adams, than to any other man. He recommended it as far back as 1823, and again in his first message to Congress. But political opposition to the man prevented his recommendations from being acted upon till nearly 20 years after they were made. This opposition was finally overcome, and we, and posterity after us, will reap the fruits of Mr. Adams’ suggestions and labors.
3. The observatory was built and furnished with various astronomical and philosophical instruments, and a corps of professors were appointed to watch the movements of the heavenly bodies, and to make such observations and experiments
The coast survey has already been of great service to the interests of navigation—whether national or commercial vessels are regarded—and, when finished, much greater benefits are to be expected. When a sufficient number of observations and experiments shall have been made at the naval observatory, and published to the world, much valuable information will be added to what is already known. And indeed it would be disreputable to a nation having so large a navy and such a vast number of merchant ships upon the ocean, to do nothing for or add nothing to the science of navigation. It would be an unwise policy if economy only were studied, and we would justly deserve the reproach of being penurious, short-sighted, and miserably wanting in disposition to promote the general good of the world.
4. The professors are assiduous in their labors, and publish the results of their observations and the facts they have determined. These are not only of use to our own seamen, but to those of all nations who are doing business on the great deep. Here the charts made by the coast survey are deposited, and from hence all our national vessels are furnished with them, and with all the nautical instruments they require.
The charts, instruments and books relating to astronomy and navigation, found here, make it the headquarters and depot of nautical science in the United States.
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE COAST SURVEY.
1. While the Naval Observatory is a government institution for studying the heavens in the interest of the Navy; the
2. This government undertaking has not been as vigorously prosecuted as some other enterprises conducted by it. As early as 1807, Congress passed an act authorizing the President to have this work done. Much of it has been done, yet it is not finished at this day. Our acquisition of Florida, Texas, and California has greatly extended our sea coast since the work was commenced, and its accomplishment has cost more time and labor than was anticipated at the beginning, yet we think it ought to have been completed in much less than 60 years.
3. This work, like that relating to light houses, is under the management of a board, consisting of a superintendent, two principal assistants, two naval officers, and four officers of the army. These nine constitute the board. Then there are as many officers of the army and navy employed in the execution of the work as are deemed necessary. And the public vessels, by direction of the President, may be used in order to facilitate the work, for much of it must be done at sea. The survey extends 20 leagues from the shore. The surveyors must make accurate charts of the whole coast, in which are laid down all the islands, shoals, roads or anchorage grounds within twenty leagues of any part of the shore of the United States. The courses or distances between the principal capes or headlands must be laid down, together with the soundings (depths of water) and everything else necessary to make a complete and accurate chart of every part of our coasts.
4. An annual report of this work must be made to Congress in December of each year, accompanied with charts, showing the progress of the work, the number of persons employed, the expenses incurred, the amount of work finished,
CHAPTER XXVIII.
LIGHT HOUSES.
1. These, with Buoys, and Beacons, are a necessary practical supplement to the labors of the Coast Survey. Buoys and Beacons indicate the shoals, or dangerous rocks and reefs beneath the surface of the water, in the daytime; while light houses indicate the same, and show the mariner the bearings of the land, in the night; and, by studying, in connection with these, the charts of the coast supplied by the Coast Survey, he may make his way as securely in the night or day through the concealed dangers of the treacherous waters as a landsman along a beaten highway. They are way-marks along the sea coast, at the entrance of harbors, and on lakes and rivers. They speak a language very well understood by the seaman; and are invaluable for the protection of his vessel from the dangers of the Deep.
2. Keepers are appointed by the government to keep them in repair, and to see that they are properly lighted every night. We have no means of knowing the number of these useful establishments, but there must be several hundred of them; for we have more sea coast than any other nation upon the globe, with a still greater length of lake and river shore. They are located at prominent points, and at dangerous places, all along the extensive lines of coast and shores.
3. To the end that light houses should be constructed and kept in repair, and that competent men might have the whole matter in charge, a law of 1852 authorized the President to appoint two officers of the navy of high rank, one officer of the corps of engineers of the army, one officer of the topographical engineers, and two civilians of high scientific attainments, to form a light house board for the United States. This board is attached to the Treasury Department, and the Secretary of the Treasury superintends its operations. The board has in charge the building, illumination, and inspection of light houses, light vessels, buoys, beacons, sea marks, and their appendages.
4. The Secretary of the Treasury is president of the board, and may convene them whenever he deems it necessary.
The law makes it the duty of the board to divide the whole of the sea, gulf, and lake coasts, into light house districts; not exceeding 12 in number. An officer of the army or navy is assigned to each district, as a light house inspector.
They have the control of everything relating to light houses, light ships, buoys, beacons, or other means of directing vessels in and out of port, or of guiding them while sailing along the coast in the night.
5. As foreign vessels receive the same benefits from our light houses as our own, there is nothing unfair or illiberal in requiring them to contribute something towards the expense of maintaining them. For this purpose Congress has imposed a tax, or laid a duty of 50 cents per ton on all foreign vessels entering any ports of the United States. This is called “light
7. A sea letter is a document or certificate, given by the collector of a port, to the captain of an American vessel, certifying that she belongs to a citizen or citizens of the United States. Armed with this, the captain can prove to all whom it may concern, anywhere in the world, the ownership and nationality of his vessel. This is a protection to her and her cargo, especially in times of war. It is one of a ship’s papers.
CHAPTER XXIX.
LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL.
1. The somewhat barbarous custom has prevailed among nations, from early times, of making war in every possible way upon the citizens of a hostile country, and of taking or destroying their property, on the principle that injury to the citizens of the power warred against would diminish its power of defense and attack.
This has been carried into effect on the sea by authorizing private vessels to be fitted out for warlike purposes and preying on the commerce of the enemy. Such authority is given by Letters of Marque and Reprisal. The Constitution confers on Congress the power to do this; and Congress authorizes the President to do it. A law was passed in 1863 expressly conveying it to him.
2. It is a formal commission given to the commander of a private armed vessel, called a privateer, authorizing him to capture the ships and goods of the subjects of a nation with which we are at war. When such letters are issued by the
3. The captured vessel is called a prize, and must be taken into some port of the United States, or into some port of a country in amity with the United States, where legal proceedings are taken before some court of competent jurisdiction; and the capture and all the circumstances of it inquired into; and if all is found to have been done according to the laws of civilized nations, the captured vessel and cargo is condemned as a prize. But if not condemned, the captors lose her. When adjudged to be a lawful prize, the ship and cargo are sold, and the money is divided between the officers and men, according to rank, and according to the laws of Congress on this subject. These laws give the whole to the captors, when the ship taken is of equal or superior force to the ship making the capture; but if of inferior force, then the United States takes one-half.
4. Privateering, as this business is called, was once considered a lawful and honorable mode of warfare. It was generally practiced between belligerent nations; but in later days its propriety and morality have been questioned. It is beginning to be looked upon as a kind of robbery not very distantly related to piracy. That it is robbery no one can deny, and, query, “Can it be justified on the ground that the robber and the robbed are the subjects of nations at war with each other?”
5. In Europe an effort has been made to do away with this species of warfare. We hope it will yet succeed, and that all nations will agree to abolish this system of plunder. Innocent parties are generally the sufferers, while but small injury is done to the power of the hostile nation.
CHAPTER XXX.
NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS.
1. These institutions are still more important for sailors than for soldiers; as the sailor is more likely to have lost his adaptation to any kind of business on land, and to lose sight of family relations by reason of his long absences to foreign regions. The government very early took this subject in hand and made ample, and extremely comfortable, provision for disabled seamen belonging to its navy.
2. In 1811 an act was passed to establish navy hospitals, for the exclusive use of such seamen as belonged to the navy. This new institution was at first placed under the management of a board of commissioners known as the commissioners of navy hospitals. This commission consisted of the Secretaries of the Navy, Treasury, and War. But in 1832 this was changed, and the Secretary of the Navy was made sole trustee of the navy hospital fund, which was made up of $50,000 appropriated by Congress for that purpose, together with twenty cents per month collected from seamen belonging to the navy, and the fines imposed on navy officers, seamen, and marines.
The commissioners were authorized to purchase or erect suitable buildings for navy hospitals.
THE MARINE HOSPITALS.
3. These are located near important seaports. At these places seamen depart for, and arrive from their voyages, and are found in the greatest numbers; and here the funds for the support of the marine hospitals are collected, as is the tonnage on ships, viz.: by the collectors of the ports. For this purpose the law authorizes the collectors of customs to demand and receive the sum of twenty cents per month from the wages of every sailor; and every master of a vessel is obliged to render to the collector an accurate account of the number of seamen
4. These provisions are contained in an act entitled, “An act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen,” passed in 1798. Seamen, whether in the merchant service or in the naval service of the United States, were indiscriminately taxed for the support of these hospitals; and both have the same rights, privileges and benefits in them. The money thus collected from seamen is called “hospital money,” and the fund is denominated “the marine hospital fund.” In 1864 there were 24 marine hospitals in the United States.
CHAPTER XXXI.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.
1. At the first general census, in 1790, there were but little over three millions and a half of inhabitants in the United States, and these mostly settled along the Atlantic seaboard; the country was oppressed with debt, and not recovered from the effects of a desolating war. Its public business, therefore, was comparatively small in amount, and was readily managed by the three Departments, of State, of the Treasury, and of War. The energy of the people, and the great resources at their command, enabled them to surmount all their difficulties
2. In 1849 Congress passed a law creating the Department of the Interior, and a Secretary of the Interior, having a seat in the Cabinet, appointed in the same manner, and possessing the same rank, as the other members of the Cabinet, was installed in office.
3. The bureau of the Commissioner of Patents was transferred from the Department of State, and the General Land Office from that of the Treasury.
The supervisory power before exercised by the Secretary of the Treasury over the accounts of the marshals, clerks, and other officers of all the courts of the United States, was placed in the hands of the new Secretary. The office of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, heretofore attached to the War Department, was also transferred to this; and the powers and duties of the Secretary of War, in relation to Indian affairs, were devolved on the Secretary of the Interior.
4. The Secretaries of War and of the Navy were by the same act relieved of their duties in regard to the Commissioner of Pensions, and those duties were thereafter to be performed by the Secretary of the new department.
The Census Bureau, heretofore attached to the State Department, and the duties of the Secretary of State in relation thereto, were also transferred to this department.
To the Secretary was also given the supervisory power over the lead and other mines belonging to the United States, heretofore executed by the Secretary of the Treasury.
The powers of the President over the Commissioners of Public Buildings were also transferred to him.
5. He was also charged with the control over the Board of Inspectors and Warden of the Penitentiary of the District of Columbia.
The Secretary of the Interior has the same power in appointing
This office has a seal, which must be affixed to the commissions of all its subordinate officers.
The President and Senate appoint the Assistant Secretaries.
From the foregoing it is easy to understand what branches of the public service are conducted in this office, and what are the duties of its Secretary.
6. The following is a list of all who have filled the office of Secretary of the Interior since the establishment of the department:
- Thomas H. Ewing, Ohio, March 7, 1849.
- T. M. T. McKennan, Pa., 1850.
- Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Sept. 12, 1850.
- Robert McClelland, Mich., March 5, 1853.
- Jacob Thompson, Miss., March 6, 1857.
- Caleb B. Smith, Ind., March 5, 1861.
- John P. Usher, Ind., Jan. 7, 1863.
- James Harlan, Iowa, 1865.
- Orville H. Browning, Ill., 1866.
- Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, March 5, 1869.
- Columbus Delano, Ohio, Nov. 1, 1870.
- ” ” reappointed March 17, 1873.
CHAPTER XXXII.
PUBLIC LANDS.
1. ALL the land in the United States, to which individuals or corporations have not acquired a legal title, is held by the general government. This includes the land, or the part of it not under special reservation, belonging to the Indians. As the settlements push on into the territory roamed over by the thinly scattered Indian tribes, an equitable arrangement is made with them, by which certain Reservations, large enough for their purposes are set aside for their occupation; and an indemnity, commonly in the form of an annuity, is made them for the lands to which they renounce their right. As they are gradually melting away, their lands will soon become all, or nearly all, the property of the government.
2. The lands free for settlement are sold under certain regulations; and given to certain classes—to soldiers, to actual settlers for Homesteads, to corporations to aid in promoting the public welfare—as Railroads and Colleges—and to support education in various ways; and the remainder held until required for use in the expansion of the country.
Nearly 200,000,000 acres have been given to assist in building railroads through unsettled parts of the country. A large part of this, however, has been only conditionally given, and not yet appropriated by the corporations. Many millions more have been given to the States as a fund in aid of public schools and collegiate institutions—and one thirty-sixth part is reserved, in every new township surveyed, for the benefit of public schools in that township. The rest is sold, at very low rates, to any who will buy.
3. To manage this property a bureau was established by act of Congress, in 1812, called The General Land Office. It was under the oversight of the Secretary of the Treasury until 1849, when the Department of the Interior was established, to which it was then transferred. Its head is called
COMMISSIONER OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE.
4. He is appointed by the President and Senate, must take the usual official oath before entering on his duties, and must give the usual official bond. He keeps the seal of his office, and fixes an impression of it upon all papers emanating from the Land Office. He, with his clerks and assistants, forms the bureau, keeps all the records and papers pertaining to the public lands, and performs all duties relating thereto. He receives reports from surveyors and from the district land officers, gives them their instructions, and reports to the President and to Congress when required to do so.
He issues all patents for lands granted by the United States, and sends and receives by mail all papers and documents relating to his official business, at public expense. Every patent for land is issued in the name of the United States, is signed by the President and by the Commissioner of the Land Office, and is then recorded in books kept for that purpose.
SURVEYORS GENERAL AND DEPUTY SURVEYORS.
5. When it is deemed necessary and expedient to bring the lands in any particular State or section of the country into market, a surveyor general is appointed for that State or section, and also a sufficient number of deputy or assistant surveyors to perform the work; which is done under the direction of the surveyor general, who is himself directed by law as to the manner of procedure. He is appointed for four years, taking the usual oath, and gives bonds for the faithful performance of his duties.
MODE OF SURVEYING THE PUBLIC LANDS.
6. The law directs how the lands shall be surveyed and mapped. Where it is practicable, they are laid out into
These sections are then sub-divided into halves, quarters, and eighths of sections; that is, into lots of 320, 160, and 80 acres. The boundary lines are all run north and south, and east and west. Thirty-six of these sections, which make a plat of six miles square, are put into a township. These townships are designated by numbers, but when inhabited are named by the inhabitants as their fancy dictates.
SALE OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.
7. After the lands have been surveyed and properly mapped into townships and sections, they are brought into market and offered for sale in such quantities as are wanted by the purchaser; from 40 acres, one-sixteenth of a section, up to a whole section; or as many sections as the buyer pleases to take.
DISTRICT LAND OFFICES.
8. District land offices for the sale of lands are established for this purpose at as many places in the State or Territory where the lands are situated, as is deemed necessary for the convenience of purchasers. Here are kept maps of all the lands lying in the district, and buyers may make their selections both of quantity and location as suits them. Here they will find
A REGISTER OF THE LAND OFFICE AND A RECEIVER OF PUBLIC MONEY FOR LANDS.
9. The first named officer will register the application made for land in a book kept for that purpose, and the second will receive the money paid for it. These officers are appointed by the President and Senate, and report their proceedings to the General Land Office at Washington. The receiver transmits all moneys received by him to the United States Treasury once in a month or once in three months, as directed.
SCHOOL LANDS.
10. As before stated, the public lands are surveyed into
11. In addition to all this the United States have donated large tracts of land to the several States in which it lay, to aid them in building their State houses, &c. Large quantities of land have also been given to aid the construction of railroads.
HOMESTEADS.
12. The government has always sold its lands at a very low price, preferring to give the people cheap farms, rather than to raise more revenue from this source.
But in 1862, Congress passed an act called “the Homestead Law,” the object of which was to cheapen the public lands to a mere nominal price to heads of families, male or female, or to persons 21 years of age or over, or to persons who had served in the army or navy of the United States, whether 21 years old or not. By the provisions of this act such persons are allowed, for the trifling sum of ten dollars, to enter upon and claim 160 acres of land, provided the claimant swears that the land is applied for his or her own use, and for settlement and cultivation. But no patent (deed) is to be given until the applicant has actually settled upon and cultivated the land for the space of five years. Such applicant must also make affidavit that he has never borne arms against the United States.
By this liberal policy, persons of very limited means may provide themselves with comfortable homes for life; and the unoccupied lands will be settled and occupied faster than if the old price of one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre had
13. Exceedingly rich and valuable mines of gold, silver, copper, lead and other minerals have been found upon the public lands. That the benefits of mining them might be extended to the many, instead of being monopolized by a few, a different rule for selling them has been made. After they have been surveyed, mapped and described, they, like other lands, are offered for sale, but in quantities of not more than 40 acres. These are generally sold at auction, but no bid less than five dollars per acre will be received. If not sold at public sale, they are then subject to private sale at that price.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS.
There are two classes of public lands subject to entry; one at $1.25 per acre, known as minimum, and one at $2.50, known as double minimum, the latter being the alternate sections along the lines of railroads. Title may be acquired by purchase at public sale, or by “private entry,” and in virtue of the Pre-emption and Homestead Laws.
At Public Sale.—Lands are offered at auction to the highest bidder, pursuant to proclamation or public notice.
Private Entry.—Lands subject to private entry, are those which have been once offered at public sale without finding purchasers. In order to acquire title to these lands, a written application must be made to the Land Register of the District in which the land is located, describing the tract desired. The Register certifies the fact to the Receiver, stating price, and the applicant then pays the money and takes a receipt, and at the
Land Warrants.—When lands are to be located with land warrants, application must be made as in cash cases, accompanied by an assigned warrant. When the tract is $2.50 per acre, $1.25 per acre must be paid in addition to the warrant. Receipts are given and patents delivered, as in the preceding case. At the time of location, a fee of 50 cents for a 40 acre warrant, and a corresponding amount for larger ones, must be paid to the Register, and a like sum to the Receiver.
Agricultural College Scrip.—This may be used in the location of lands at private entry, but is only applicable to lands subject to entry at $1.25 per acre, and is restricted to a technical “quarter section,” and to three sections in each township of land. The proceeding to acquire title is the same as in cash and warrant cases, the fees being the same as on warrants. This scrip may be used in payment of pre-emption claims.
Pre-emption.—Any person being the head of a family, or widow, or single man over 21 years of age, and a citizen of the United States, or a person who has filed his declaration to become such, by settling upon and improving any of the “offered,” “unoffered,” or unsurveyed lands of the United States, may obtain a pre-emption right to purchase 160 acres so occupied, at the regular government price, whether it be $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. Where the tract is “offered” land, the settler must file with the District Land Office his statement as to the fact of settlement, within thirty days thereafter, and within one year must make proof to the Land Office, of his actual residence and cultivation, and secure the land by payment in cash or Land Warrant. Where the land has been surveyed and not offered at public sale, the statement must be filed within three months after settlement, and payment made within 21 months. Where settlement is made upon unsurveyed
The Homestead Privilege.—The Homestead laws give to every citizen the right to a Homestead of 160 acres minimum, or eighty acres double minimum. To obtain Homestead, applicant must swear that he is the head of a family, or over the age of twenty-one, a citizen, or has declared his intention to become such; and that the entry is for his exclusive use and benefit, and for actual settlement and cultivation. When an applicant has made actual settlement upon the land he desires, he must make affidavit of the fact before the Land Register, and pay fees amounting, on 160 acres of minimum land, to $18, or an equal sum for eighty acres of double minimum, for which he gets a receipt; and after five years’ occupation and cultivation of the land, he is entitled upon proof of such cultivation to a patent or full title to the Homestead. Any loyal person in the naval or military service of the United States, may acquire a Homestead by reason of his family occupying land and making the application in his stead. All officers, soldiers, and sailors who have served in the army or navy for ninety days and remained loyal, may enter 160 instead of 80 acres of double minimum lands. The fees above for entering Homestead apply to surveyed lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In California, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, Washington Territory, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, the fees are $22 instead of $18. A settler having filed a pre-emption declaration, may change his filing into Homestead, and receive the benefit of the Homestead laws. If a Homestead settler does not wish to remain five years on his land before obtaining title, he may pay for it in cash or Land Warrants. Lands obtained under the Homestead laws are
United States Land Offices are located at Fort Des Moines, Council Bluffs, Fort Dodge and Sioux City, Iowa; Menasha, Falls of St. Croix, Stevens’ Point, La Crosse, Bayfield and Eau Claire, Wisconsin; San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visalia, Sacramento, and Los Angeles, California; West Point, Beatrice, Lincoln, Dakota City, and Grand Island, Nebraska; Taylor’s Falls, St. Cloud, Du Luth, Alexandria, Jackson, New Ulm, and Litchfield, Minnesota; Oregon City, Roseburg, and Le Grand, Oregon; Topeka, Junction City, Humboldt, and Augusta, Kansas; Carson City, Austin, Belmont, and Aurora, Nevada; Vermilion, Springfield, and Pembina, Dakota; Denver City, Fair Play, and Central City, Colorado; Boonville, Ironton, and Springfield, Missouri; Mobile, Huntsville, and Montgomery, Alabama; New Orleans, Monroe, Natchiloches, Louisiana; Detroit, East Saginaw, Iona, Marquette, and Traverse City, Michigan; Little Rock, Washington, and Clarksville, Arkansas; Boise City, and Lewiston, Idaho; Chillicothe, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; Springfield, Illinois; Jackson, Mississippi; Tallahassee, Florida; Olympia, and Vancouver, Washington Territory; Helena, Montana; Prescott, Arizona; Salt Lake City, Utah.
PRE-EMPTION LAWS.
A pre-emption right is the right of a squatter upon the lands of the United States to purchase, in preference to others, when the land is sold. Such right is granted to the following persons: Any citizen of the United States; any person who has filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen; any head of a family; any widow; any single woman of the age of twenty-one years or over; and any person who has made a settlement, erected a dwelling-house upon, and is an inhabitant of the tract sought to be entered—provided such settlement was made since June 1, 1840, and previously to the time of application for the land, which land must, at the date of the
A person bringing himself within the above requirements by proof satisfactory to the Register and Receiver of the land district in which the land may lie, taken pursuant to the rules hereafter prescribed, will, after having taken the affidavit required by the Act, be entitled to enter, by legal subdivisions, any number of acres, not exceeding one hundred and sixty, or a quarter-section, to include his residence; and he may avail himself of the same at any time prior to the day of the commencement of the public sale, including said tract, where the land has not yet been proclaimed.
Where the land was subject to private entry, June 1, 1840, and a settlement shall thereafter be made upon such land, or where the land shall become hereafter subject to private entry, and after that period a settlement shall be made, which the settler is desirous of securing, notice of such intention must be given within thirty days after such settlement; and, in all such cases, the proof, affidavit and payment must be made within twelve months after such settlement.
The tracts liable to entry are embraced under the following designations: First, a regular quarter-section, notwithstanding the quantity may vary a few acres from one hundred and sixty; or a quarter-section, which, though fractional in quantity by the passage of a navigable stream through the same, is still bounded by regular sectional and quarter-sectional lines; second, a fractional section containing not over one hundred and sixty acres, or any tract being a detached or anomalous survey made pursuant to law, and not exceeding such quantity; third, two adjoining half-quarter-sections (in all cases to be separated by a north and south line, except on the north side of township, where the surveys are so made as to throw the excess or deficiency on the north and west sides of the township), of the regular quarters mentioned in the first designation; fourth, two half-quarter or eighty-acre subdivisions of a fractional or broken section, adjoining each other, the aggregate quantity
Only one person upon a quarter-section is protected, and he the one who made the first settlement, provided he conform to the other provisions of the law. A person who has once availed himself of the provisions of the Pre-emption Act, cannot, at any future period, or at any other land office, acquire any other right under it. No person, who is the proprietor of three hundred and twenty acres of land in any State or Territory of the United States, or who quits or abandons his residence on his own land to reside on the public land in the same State or Territory, is entitled to the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts.
The approval of the tracts by the local land office is the evidence of the survey; but the land is to be construed as surveyed when the requisite lines are run on the field, and the corners established by the deputy surveyor. No assignment or transfers of pre-emption rights are recognized at the land office; the patents issuing to the claimants, in whose names alone the entries are made.
The following description of lands are not liable to entry: first, lands included in any reservation by any treaty, law, or proclamation of the President of the United States, and lands reserved for salines and for other purposes; second, lands
Persons claiming the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts are required to file duplicate affidavits, such as are specified by law, and to furnish proof, by one or more disinterested witnesses, of the facts necessary to establish the requisites mentioned in the first paragraph of this article; such witnesses having first been duly sworn or affirmed by some competent authority.
If adverse claims are made to the same tract, each claimant is to be notified of the time and place of taking testimony, and allowed to cross-examine the opposite witnesses, and to furnish counter-proof, itself subject to cross-examination. If, by reason of distance, sickness, or infirmity, the witnesses cannot personally appear before the register of the land office, their depositions, taken in conformity with the following regulations, may be received:
The notice to adverse claimants must be in writing, and served in time to allow at least one day for every twenty miles which the party may have to travel in going to the place of taking evidence. The proof, in all cases, should consist of a simple detail of facts merely, and not of broad and general statements. If the pre-emptor be “the head of a family,” the witnesses must state the facts constituting him such; whether
No entry will be permitted until the affidavit required of the claimant is taken. Duplicates thereof must be signed by the claimant, and the fact of the oath being taken must be certified by the register or receiver administering the same; one copy to be filed in the Register’s office, and the other to be sent to the Land Office at Washington.
A purchaser of public land is only required to make written application to the Register of the local land office for the tract desired to be entered, and to pay to the Receiver the purchase money therefor. Blank forms of such application are furnished gratuitously at the Land Office where the tract is desired to be entered.
Soldiers’ Homestead Law of 1872.
The following is the full text of the Amendatory Soldiers’ Homestead Bill, approved by the President on the 3d of April, 1872.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: That every private soldier and officer who has served in the army of the United States during the recent rebellion for ninety days or more, and who was honorably discharged, and has remained loyal to the government, including the troops mustered into the service of the United States by virtue of the
Section 2. That any person entitled under the provisions of the foregoing section to enter a homestead, who may have heretofore entered under the Homestead law a quantity of land less than one hundred and sixty acres, shall be permitted to enter under the provisions of this act so much land as, when
Section 3. That in the case of the death of any person who would be entitled to a homestead under the provisions of the first section of this act, his widow, if unmarried, or in case of her death or marriage, then his minor orphan children, by a guardian duly approved and officially accredited at the Department of the Interior, shall be entitled to all the benefits enumerated in this act, subject to all the provisions as to settlement and improvements therein contained: Provided, that if such person died during his term of enlistment, the whole term of his enlistment shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect the title.
Section 4. That where a party, at the date of his entry of a tract of land under the Homestead laws, or subsequently thereto, was actually enlisted and employed in the army or navy of the United States, his services therein shall, in the administration of said Homestead laws, be construed to be equivalent, to all intents and purposes, to a residence for the same length of time upon the tract so entered: Provided, that if his entry has been canceled by reason of his absence from said tract while in the military or naval service of the United States, and such tract has not been disposed of, his entry shall be restored and confirmed: And provided further, that if such tract has been disposed of, said party may enter another tract subject to the entry under said laws, and his right to a patent therefor shall be determined by the proofs touching his residence and cultivation of the first tract and his absence therefrom in such service.
Section 5. That any soldier, sailor, marine, officer, or other person coming within the provisions of this act may, as well by an agent as in person, enter upon said homestead: Provided, that the said claimant in person shall, within the time prescribed [six months from date of entry] commence settlement and improvement on the same, and thereafter fulfill all the requirements of this act.
Section 6. That the commissioner of the General Land Office shall have authority to make all needful rules and regulations to carry into effect the provisions of this act.”
CHAPTER XXXIV.
PATENTS.
1. These originated in the desire of the founders of the government to encourage invention, in the belief that the general welfare of the country would be promoted by such a stimulus to genius, and the power to grant patents was expressly bestowed on Congress. That this was a very wise forethought there is no doubt. The hope of reward has given birth to innumerable inventions, among which some have been of incalculable value to the country, increasing its wealth almost beyond our power to estimate. It is, however, worth considering if there may not be a limit to the usefulness of the system, in its present form, in the changed conditions of the country. It is often the case that what accomplished the greatest good in its proper day, is at length outgrown, and becomes an embarrassment, requiring to be either essentially modified or laid aside.
2. A patent right is an exclusive right, granted by an officer denominated the Commissioner of Patents, in conformity to law, to the inventor or discoverer of any new and useful article. The exclusive right is conferred by acts of Congress, on compliance of the inventor with certain conditions which are clearly specified in the law. The evidence that such exclusive right has been conferred on any individual, is contained in a document, called “letters patent,” issued at the patent office in Washington; signed by the Secretary of the Interior, (formerly by the Secretary of State), countersigned by the Commissioner
3. This was the law up to 1861; and is still in force as to patents granted anterior to that date. But a new act was then passed, extending the term of an original patent to seventeen, instead of fourteen years, and prohibiting any extension of such patents.
An inventor, before he can obtain a patent, must swear that he believes he is the inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, or improvement, for which he solicits a patent. He must also give in writing a clear, minute description of it; and, when necessary, must make and deliver a model of his invention; which in all cases must be something new, unused and unknown before, or his application will be rejected. There is considerable expense attending the procurement of a patent right.
4. But when obtained, no person except the patentee, has any right to make, sell, or use the article patented, until the time has expired for which this exclusive right was granted, without the permission of the patentee. Any person doing so is liable to a heavy penalty, and may be prosecuted in the Circuit Court of the United States; this court having original jurisdiction in all cases arising under the patent laws. But a writ of error or an appeal lies to the Supreme Court of the United States.
5. The Patent Office, when first established, was a bureau of the State Department, and the Commissioner of Patents acted under the direction of the Secretary of State. But after the creation of the Department of the Interior, in 1849, it was transferred to it, became a bureau of the new department, and the commissioner now acts under the general direction of its secretary.
THE COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS
6. Is appointed by the President and Senate. His duties are best explained in the language of the law itself, which, in speaking of the creation and appointment of this official, says that his duties shall be “to superintend, execute and perform all such acts and things touching and respecting the granting and issuing of patents for new and useful discoveries, inventions and improvements, as are herein provided for, or shall hereafter be by law directed to be done and performed.”
He has the charge and custody of all books, records, papers, models, machines, and all other things belonging to the patent office; and has the privilege of sending and receiving letters and packages by mail, relating to the business of the office, free of postage. He has the power to appoint his clerks, examiners and subordinates; among whom are patent office agents, who may be appointed in not more than twenty of the principal cities and towns in the United States. It is their duty to forward to the patent office all such models, specimens and manufactures, as shall be intended to be patented.
7. In cases of appeal from the decision of the commissioner, the appeal may be made to the board of examiners, or to the Chief Justice of the District Court of the United States for the District of Columbia. There is a seal for the patent office, which the commissioner keeps, and which he must affix to patents when granted, and to other papers and records issued from his office, which are wanted as evidence in other places.
He is also authorized to publish a classified and alphabetical list of all patents issued at the patent office. This he frequently does, for the information of the public.
CHAPTER XXXV.
PENSIONS.
Pensions are a provision, made by the general government, for the officers and privates of the army and navy disabled in the service of the country. They peril their lives for the protection of the public, and it has always been regarded as just that a support, proportioned to the extent of injury received, should be given to them, or to those dependent on them in case of their death. It is properly a continuance of pay in consideration of the services rendered. It does not often amount to a full support, and is graduated by the amount each received, according to rank.
A COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS
Was appointed and placed at the head of a bureau, at first in the War Department, but afterward transferred to the care of the Secretary of the Interior. It is a Pension Office, in fact. This commissioner is appointed by the President and Senate in the same manner as other important officers. It is his duty to carry into effect the pension laws. He is authorized to appoint pension agents in all the States and Territories, who receive and distribute the money due to pensioners in their several districts, the agents receiving from the government a percentage for their services.
There has always been a large number on the list. At first they were the disabled soldiers and sailors of the Revolutionary War; then of the War of 1812 with England, followed in 1846 by the Mexican War. But all these were few compared with the number disabled in the Civil War. The amount
The proper officials to whom all applications should be made, by letter or petition, in Washington, are, by a soldier having his discharge, to the Paymaster General; when the discharge paper is lost, to the Second Auditor of the Treasury; when by those who represent a deceased person, to the second Auditor of the Treasury; when for commutation of rations, to the same officer; when for pensions, or any matter connected with pensions, to the Commissioner of Pensions.
Instructions have been prepared for all applicants, by the Commissioner of Pensions for the purpose of preventing fraud or misunderstanding. They are, in substance:
INSTRUCTIONS.
By the act of Congress approved July 14th, 1862, and amendatory acts, pensions are granted as follows:
1. Invalids, disabled in the military or naval service of the United States, in the line of duty.
2. Widows of persons who have been killed or have died in the military or naval service of the United States.
3. Children under sixteen, of the classes of persons on account of whose death widows are entitled; provided said widows have died, or have remarried.
4. Mothers of all classes of persons on account of whose death widows are entitled, provided said mothers were dependent on the deceased for support and no minor child survived.
5. Fathers, the same as mothers, in case of the death of the latter.
6. Brothers and sisters, under sixteen, provided they were dependent for support upon the person on account of whose decease they claim.
The First Section of the Act of July 14th, 1862, showing the rates of pension to the several classes and grades, is as follows:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That if any officer, non-commissioned officer, musician, or private of the army, including regulars, volunteers, militia, or any officer, warrant, or petty officer, musician, seaman, ordinary seaman, flotillaman, marine, clerk, landsman, pilot, or other person in the navy or marine corps, has been, since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, or shall hereafter be, disabled by reason of any wound received or disease contracted while in the service of the United States, and in the line of duty, he shall, upon making due proof of the fact according to such forms and regulations as are or may be provided by, or in pursuance of law, be placed upon the list of invalid pensions of the United States, and be entitled to receive, for the highest rate of disability, such pension as is hereinafter provided in such cases, and for an inferior disability an amount proportionate to the highest disability, to commence as hereinafter provided, and continue during the existence of such disability. The pension for a total disability for officers, non-commissioned officers, musicians and privates employed in the military service of the United States, whether regulars, volunteers, or militia, and in the marine corps, shall be as follows, viz.: lieutenant-colonel and all officers of a higher rank, thirty dollars per month; major, twenty-five dollars per month; captain, twenty dollars per month; first lieutenant, seventeen dollars per month; second lieutenant, fifteen dollars per month; and non-commissioned officers, musicians and privates, eight dollars per month. The pension for total disability for officers, warrant or petty officers, and others employed in the naval service of the United States, shall be as follows, viz.: captain, commander, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, respectively, ranking with commander by law, lieutenant commanding, and master commanding, thirty dollars per month; lieutenant, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, respectively, ranking with lieutenant by law, and passed assistant surgeon, twenty-five dollars per month; professor of mathematics,
Act of July 4, 1864.
Various supplementary Acts have been passed by the Act of July 14, 1862, modifying in some particulars the provisions of previous legislation.
By the Act of July 4, 1864, it is provided that biennial examinations will hereafter be made by one surgeon only, if he is regularly appointed, or holds a surgeon’s commission in the army. Examinations by unappointed civil surgeons will not be accepted, unless it can be shown that an examination by a commissioned or duly appointed surgeon is impracticable.
Increased Pensions in Certain Cases.—A pension of twenty-five dollars per month is granted to those having lost both hands or both eyes in the military service of the United States, in the line of duty, and twenty dollars per month to those who, under the same conditions, shall have lost both feet, if such parties were entitled to a lower rate of pension under the act of 1862. This higher pension will date only from the 4th day of July, 1864, in case of pensioners already enrolled, or of applicants discharged prior to that date.
Evidence of Muster-in.—In accordance with the 11th Section of the Act of July 4, 1864, evidence of the muster-in of the soldier will not be required in any case, but there must be positive record evidence of service. Evidence of muster-in in the case of commissioned officers is still required.
Act of June 6, 1866.
The Supplementary Pension Act, approved June six, eighteen
1. Twenty-five dollars per month to all those invalids entitled, under the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, to a lower rate of pension, on account of service rendered since March four, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, “who shall have lost the sight of both eyes, or who shall have lost both hands, or been permanently and totally disabled in the same, or otherwise so permanently and totally disabled as to render them utterly helpless, or so nearly so as to require the constant personal aid and attendance of another person.”
2. Twenty dollars per month to those invalids who, being entitled under like conditions to a lower rate of pension, “shall have lost both feet, or one hand and one foot, or been totally and permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any manual labor, but not so much so as to require constant personal aid and attention.”
3. Fifteen dollars per month to those invalids who, under like conditions, “shall have lost one hand or one foot, or been totally and permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to render their inability to perform manual labor equivalent to the loss of a hand or a foot.”
In order to obtain the benefits of the foregoing provisions, pensioners already enrolled will file an application in accordance with form F, appended hereto. Proof in addition to that on file with the previous application need not be forwarded, except as shall be specially required in each case, after the application is received. The applicant need only be examined by a pension surgeon when expressly required, on due notice from this office. Applicants not already pensioned, who believe themselves entitled to the benefit of the foregoing provisions, will specifically set forth such claim in their declarations, carefully stating the nature of the disability on account of which such higher rate of pension is claimed. The declaration must be made before some officer of a court of record, or before a
The above specified increased rates of pension will be allowed only to those disabled since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, and will date only from the sixth day of June, eighteen hundred and sixty-six.
Teamsters, Artificers, and other Enlisted Men,—not embraced in the terms of the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, or of Acts supplementary thereto, are, by the tenth section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, included in the administration of the pension laws, in the class of non-commissioned officers and privates.
Minor Children to be Pensioned, in Certain Cases, instead of the Widow.—The eleventh section provides that when any widow, entitled to a pension under previous Acts, has abandoned the care of a child or children of her deceased husband, under sixteen years of age, “or is an unsuitable person, by reason of immoral conduct, to have the custody of the same,” the pension shall be paid to the duly authorized guardian of such child or children, while under the age of sixteen years, and not to the widow. The proper proof in such case, as provided by this section, is the certificate of the judge of any court having probate jurisdiction, “that satisfactory evidence has been produced before such court” to the effect above indicated. In presenting an application under this section, the guardians of the minor child or children will make a declaration in accordance with the appended form G.
Pensions Granted to Dependent Fathers and to Dependent Orphan Brothers.—By the twelfth section the provisions of the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, are extended so as to include the dependent brother or brothers of a deceased officer, soldier or seaman, and the dependent father of such deceased persons, under like limitations as apply in the case of dependent sisters and mothers; but not more than one pension is granted on account of the same person, or to
Limitations as to Number and Date of Pensions.—The thirteenth section declares that but one pension shall be granted to any person at the same time; and that when application is not made within three years after the death or discharge of the party on whose account a pension is claimed, such pension, if allowed, “shall commence from the date of filing the last paper in said case by the party prosecuting the same.” This limitation applies to all classes of pensions.
Evidence of Marriage of Colored Applicants.—The fourteenth section provides that habitual recognition of the marriage relation between colored parties—that is, in the absence of the usually required proof—when shown by “proof satisfactory to the Commissioner of Pensions,” shall be accepted as evidence of marriage, and the children of such parties shall be regarded as if born in lawful wedlock. When the usual proof of marriage can be furnished, it will be required as heretofore. When only evidence of cohabitation and mutual recognition can be adduced, as provided in this section, the testimony of two credible and disinterested witnesses will be required, who must state how long they have been personally acquainted with the parties, and for how long a period the latter are known to have recognized each other as man and wife. If such acquaintance is deemed to be of too recent date to warrant the acceptance of this testimony, or if there is reason to doubt, in any instance, that the marriage relation existed in good faith, more specific instructions will be issued, adapted to the circumstances of the particular case.
Act of July 25, 1866.
Provost Marshals, Enrolling Officers, and others Entitled to the Benefits of the Pension Laws.—The first section of the Act of July twenty-five, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, extends
Declarations will be made in accordance with the instructions issued under the Pension Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and supplementary Acts. The grade of such officers, for the purpose of determining the rates of pensions under this section, is fixed as follows: Provost marshals will rank as captains; their deputies as first lieutenants; and enrolling officers as second lieutenants.
Increased Pensions to Widows, and Orphan Children Under Sixteen Years of Age.—The second section of this act allows to those who are or shall be pensioned as widows of soldiers or sailors, two dollars per month additional pension for each child (under sixteen years of age) of the deceased soldier or sailor by the widow thus pensioned.
On the death or remarriage of such widow, or on the denial of a pension to her, in accordance with the provisions of section eleven of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, the same amount to which she would otherwise be entitled, under this and previous provisions, is allowed to the minor children. The number and names of the children, with their ages, must be proved by the affidavits of two credible and disinterested witnesses. The provisions of this section only include the children of the widow, and not those of her deceased husband by a previous marriage. The widows of minor children of officers are not entitled to this increase. Declarations for an increase under this section, if for the widow, will be made in accordance with form H, appended hereto; and if for minor children, according to form I. The pension certificate must be sent with all applications filed subsequently to September four, eighteen hundred and sixty-six.
Increase of Pensions under Acts prior to July 4, 1862.—All pensioners under Acts approved prior to July fourteen,
Declaration of claimants under this section will be made in accordance with the forms previously issued under Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and subsequent pension acts, with the necessary modifications, and the pension certificates will be returned.
Invalid Pensions of Claimants Dying while their Applications are Pending, the Evidence being Completed.—The fourth section of this act is construed in connection with the tenth section of the Act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the sixth section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, to which it is supplementary. If an applicant for invalid pension dies while his claim is pending, the evidence having been completed, the pension, under the provisions of this section and of those sections of previous acts above referred to, is disposed of as follows:
1. If he left a widow, or minor child, or children under sixteen years of age, or other dependent relatives, and died of wounds received or of disease contracted in the service or in the line of duty, no invalid pension certificate will issue, but such widow or dependent relatives will receive a pension, in their own right, taking precedence in the order prescribed by law in other cases.
2. If the claimant left a widow or dependent relatives, but did not die of wounds received, or disease contracted in the service and in the line of duty, so that neither widow nor dependent relatives would be entitled to a pension on his account, then the certificate will be issued in his name, and the pension paid to the widow or to the dependent relatives, as the case may be, in the same order in which they would have been pensioned, if entitled, as set forth in the preceding paragraph.
3. If the claimant left no widow or dependent relatives, the certificate will issue in his name, and the pension will be drawn by his executor or administrator.
Certain Accrued Rights Reserved under Repealed Enactments.—The fifth section reserves all rights that may have accrued under the fifth section of the pension Act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the third section of the pension Act of March three, eighteen hundred and sixty-five, though repealed by the first section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred sixty-six.
Widows Remarrying while their Claims are Pending,—Are entitled, under the sixth section, if their claims are otherwise valid, to receive pensions to the date of remarriage, if the deceased officer, soldier or sailor, on whose account they claim, left no legitimate child under sixteen years of age.
Joseph H. Barrett,
Commissioner of Pensions.
Pension Office, August 4, 1866.
Act of July 27, 1868.
Section 1.—Dependent Relatives.—In this section precedence is given to the dependent relatives hereinafter mentioned, in the following order, to wit: First, mothers; secondly, fathers; thirdly, orphan brothers and sisters under sixteen, who shall be pensioned jointly; and the persons enumerated shall each be entitled in their order, after the death of the one preceding.
Sect. 2.—Invalids Disabled Subsequent to Passage of this Act.—This section specifies as to pensions by reason of disabilities incurred subsequent to the passage of this Act, and enumerates the circumstances under which said disabilities must have been contracted.
Sect. 3.—Unclaimed Pensions.—This section provides that pensions remaining unclaimed for fourteen months after the same have become due, shall be adjusted at the Pension Agency instead of at the office of the Third Auditor; and
Sect. 4.—Increase of Pensions of Widows and of Children by a former Wife.—This section gives an increase of two dollars per month for each minor child of a deceased soldier, to commence from the death of their father, and continue until they severally attain the age of sixteen years; and provides that the children of a former marriage shall be “entitled to receive two dollars per month, to commence from the death of their father, and continue until they severally attain the age of sixteen years, to be paid to the guardian of such child or children for their use and benefit; Provided, however, That in all such cases such widow is charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or children, the said sum of two dollars per month for each of said children shall be paid to her for and during the time she is or may have been so charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or children, subject to the same conditions, provisions and limitations as if they were her own children by her said deceased husband.”
Sect. 5.—Widows and Minors not Debarred, etc.—By this section no widow or guardian to whom an increase of pension has been or may hereafter be granted on account of minor children, shall be deprived thereof by reason of their being maintained or educated at the expense of the State or of the public.
Sect. 6.—Extension of Limitation.—This section provides that all pensions applied for within five years after the right thereto shall have accrued, and which have been or may be granted under the Act of July 14, 1862, or Acts supplementary thereto, shall commence from the discharge or death of the person on whose account the pension has been or shall be granted; and in cases of insane persons and minors, who were without guardians or other proper legal representatives previous to said limitation, applications may be filed in their
Sect. 7.—Arrears.—In which notification of title to arrears of pension, under the foregoing section is provided for; and also that no claim agent or other person shall be entitled to compensation for services in making application for such arrears.
Sect. 8.—Widow’s Pension to Children, etc.—In which the requirement of the certificate of the court that satisfactory evidence has been adduced of the abandonment of the care of the minor child or children of a deceased soldier by his widow, or of her unsuitableness to have custody of them is dispensed with. The furnishing of satisfactory evidence thereof to the commissioner shall be sufficient to cause the suspension of said widow’s pension.
Sect. 9.—Pending Claim may be Completed by Heirs.—In which if any person entitled to a pension has died since March 4, 1861, his heirs or legal representatives shall be entitled to receive the accrued pension; provided no widow or minor child survives the applicant.
Sect. 10.—Remarriage.—This section provides for pension to the widow or dependent mother, from the death of soldier to the date of claimant’s remarriage, (provided no children under sixteen survive.)
Sect. 11.—Extension of Time.—This section provides for the continuance in force of the Act of July 4, 1864, from the 4th July, 1867, for five years.
Sect. 12.—Loss of an Eye.—This section allows twenty-five dollars as a pension for total loss of sight from wounds received or disease contracted in the service, though the pensioner may have had only one eye when entering the service.
Sect. 13.—Pension by reason of Right Accrued since Revolution.—By this section all persons pensioned by reason of services rendered since the war of the Revolution, and prior to March 4, 1861, are placed on the same footing with those pensioned
Sect. 14.—Limbs to Officers.—By this section captains in the army and lieutenants in the navy, and those of less rank, who have lost a leg or an arm in such service, shall be entitled to receive an artificial limb upon the same terms as privates in the army.
Sect. 15.—Special Acts.—By this section all pensions granted by special Acts shall be subject to be varied in amount, according to the provisions and limitations of the pension laws.
Sect. 16.—Repealing Clause.—By this section all Acts and parts of Acts inconsistent with the foregoing provisions of this Act be and the same are hereby repealed.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
INDIAN AFFAIRS.
When America was discovered, in 1492, the whole continent was thinly populated (except in some few regions where a considerable degree of civilization and skill in agriculture had been attained, as in Mexico and Peru) by roving tribes of natives, of unknown origin. These were called, by Europeans, Indians, from the erroneous idea of Columbus, and the men of that age at first, that there was only one continent; and that they had reached the eastern shore of Asia, when America was discovered.
The whole of the region comprising our country was in the possession of a great number of these tribes. Their number, when permanent settlements began to be made, is not known, but probably amounted, in all the vast territory, to only a
As the settlements of Europeans extended, frequent and barbarous wars, greatly exasperating the whites, arose as a revenge for private injuries, or in retaliation of encroachments on their hunting grounds. As these always ended, ultimately, in favor of the settlers, and the Indians were driven farther back, the country was taken possession of as the spoils of conquest. These desolating contests, and the easily-acquired vices of the whites constantly diminished their numbers. They were so inherently wild men that the conquered remnants usually withered and faded away under the process of civilization.
When, after the War of the Revolution, the settlements came to be consolidated and extensive, under the rapid growth of the population, lands were reserved for these remnants; treaties were made with them, as with independent nations; and, from their improvidence and carelessness as to the economical preservation of their resources, the indemnities allowed them for the lands to which they renounced all claim were paid to them in installments, or as annuities, by the government. This system has been continued to the present day, and has occasioned the establishment of the
INDIAN BUREAU OF THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.
It is presided over by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, appointed in the usual way by the President and Senate. Numerous Superintendents and agents are appointed to reside near the different locations assigned to the Indians, to conduct
Except a few who are taxed, the Indians are not counted among our population as citizens. They have, therefore, no representative in Congress, nor, except the criminal law to some extent, are they amenable to other of our laws than such as the treaties have established. Their internal government is conducted by themselves alone, neither governor, judge, nor courts being established, as in other Territorial jurisdictions.
They are difficult to control, however, not recognizing, as civilized people do (except a small number who are far on the way to civilization), the obligations of treaties and pledges. Dishonest and self-seeking men often take advantage of their ignorance and their love of ardent spirits and trinkets, to cheat and injure them. To remedy this as far as possible, white men are not permitted to reside on their reservations unless by special license of the government. Nor can they alienate their lands to white men not officials acting under government supervision.
All pains are required to be taken by the government officers to promote their interests, and schools and missions are encouraged among them, and agricultural implements are furnished so far as they can be persuaded to use them. In short, it is the benevolent and enlightened aim of the government to act as the guardians of their true interests, to encourage mental and moral culture among them, and assist them toward the acquisition of the arts and comforts of civilized life.
It will easily be comprehended that many difficulties oppose themselves to this effort with a race whose instincts are so wild and fierce, and who adopt our vices so much more readily than our virtues, and are so easily influenced by bad and designing men. Still, progress is made, as will be seen in the case of
THE INDIAN TERRITORY.
It is situated south of the 37th degree of north latitude, and west of the States of Arkansas and Missouri. Texas bounds it on the south. It has 71,127 square miles, and is about a third larger than the State of Illinois. It is very fertile, for the most part, and a beautiful region. It is inhabited, in great part, by Indians who have been transferred from the regions east of the Mississippi, mostly Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Seminoles. Some of these were removed by persuasion, and some by force, from their former homes, where they were disturbed by proximity to the rapidly increasing white population.
Each tribe has its own section of the Territory. Here they practice their own customs unmolested, and conduct their own government. Many of them, especially the Cherokees, are intelligent and industrious. They have churches and schools and factories, highly-cultivated farms and good buildings. Improvement is so marked among them that it is not improbable that they may at some future time become a State in our Union. At present they are amenable to the Circuit and District Courts of the adjoining States when certain crimes are committed by them against the whites in those States, but our courts have no authority over their relations to one another.
The population of the Territory is 70,000. The entire Indian population of the country is over 300,000. They are scattered over the States and Territories between the Missouri river and the Pacific coast, and those outside the Indian Territory are often at war with each other and with our citizens, requiring many troops and a large expense to keep them in subjection. It is probable that, as a race, they will soon become extinct, except, perhaps, those in the Indian Territory. They are uneasy, and dangerous neighbors to the whites in those sparsely-settled regions. The amount appropriated to the Indians by Congress for the year 1873-4, was $5,513,937, which was exclusive of their annuities, or funds invested for them, of which they receive the annual interest.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
CENSUS BUREAU.
1. A census is an enumeration, or counting, of the inhabitants of any country. History informs us that this was done in very ancient times. One of the books in the Old Testament (Numbers) was named from the circumstance that it contains an account of the numbering of the Israelites, by the order of Moses. That numbering was a census of the people composing the Jewish nation. It not only gives us the total number of the people, but that of each tribe; much after our own mode of doing the same thing. We take ours by States, and we find the total of the whole nation. In ancient times a census seems to have been taken more for military than for any other purpose. This is one of the objects in the present day; but in modern times many uses are made of a census. It not only shows the military power of a nation, but when taken with the distinction of sex, and age, with an account of the births, marriages, and deaths during each year, it throws much light upon a variety of interesting topics; such as the longevity, the rate of mortality, the ratio of increase, and the average duration of human life. These, and many other important facts are obtained by a census.
2. In the United States the census is the only means by which Congress determines the number of Representatives each State is entitled to have in that body. Hence the Constitution itself makes provision for the enumeration of the people once in ten years—called a decade. The first was made in 1790, the next in 1800, and so on every tenth year. If the number of any year ends with a cipher, we know that the United States census was taken, or will be taken, in that year, whether we look backward or forward.
3. Up to the present time, according to the provisions made
We will next state how this great national work is performed. The Constitution simply declares that it shall be done, but the laws specify how it shall be done, and who shall do it.
The United States Marshals are the officers designated by the law as the persons who shall make the enumeration of the people in each State and Territory; in addition to which they are also required to procure other statistical matter, as directed by Congress.
4. In order to accomplish this work, it is necessary to employ a number of assistant marshals, one of whom must visit every house in his district, and ascertain the number of persons belonging to it, together with such statistical information as is required. This is all returned to the Marshal, and by him sent to the Department of the Interior at Washington, where, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, it is made into a report, and then laid before Congress, to be used by it in apportioning to the States their quota of Representatives. This apportionment is actually made in the Department of the Interior, and then laid before Congress for its examination and approval. The Marshal appoints and commissions his deputies, who must be sworn to perform the duties assigned to them, to the best of their ability.
5. In the department of the Interior there is a board whose duty it is to superintend the work of taking the census. It prepares, prints, and sends to every Marshal the blanks to be used by him and his assistants; and when they have made returns of their work, the board arranges them preparatory to laying them before Congress. After this they are published, and make a valuable work of reference; for they contain a
6. All this is done by order of Congress, and of course paid for from the United States Treasury.
Elsewhere in this book (see index) we give a tabular statement of the population of each State and Territory, at each time the census has been taken by the United States. It shows the increase at each decade from 1790, the first time it was taken, to 1870—the last at this date. This table also shows the increase in the number of States, from the original 13 to the present 37, besides the Territories, which alone are larger than the original 13 States, and nearly as numerous.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Was established by an act of Congress, May, 1862. It is not, like the other Departments of the Executive Branch of the government, superintended by a Secretary with a seat in the President’s Cabinet. Its Head is called The Commissioner of Agriculture, and he is appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, like other civil officers. The creation of this office is a recognition of the extreme importance of this industry to the prosperity and welfare of the nation. Our country is eminently an agricultural one; and the interests confided to this department are those of a class of the people more numerous than any other, and on the
The great fertility of our country, and the breadth of area adapted to all the most useful products of the world, and the need of instruction, suggestion, and aid in properly adapting agricultural products to the soil and climate, by the large number of settlers in regions with whose peculiarities they are but partially familiar, give a special interest and value to this new Department.
Its duty is to watch over this large field and make such suggestions to Congress in regard to legislation as shall seem called for; to disseminate such practical information among the people as it may be able to acquire by intelligent observation in this and other countries; and the testing and dissemination of rare and untried plants of other countries that promise to increase our agricultural resources.
For experiments in the latter case, a propagating garden and grounds are provided, and the most skillful and intelligent officers, bringing all the lights of science to their assistance, devote themselves to the study of these plants, as to the soil and climate best adapted to them, the proper modes of cultivation, and to acclimating them to our country. This branch of the department sends, to suitable sections of the country, such plants and seeds as it has reason to believe it will be profitable to introduce and cultivate. This usage, continued for many years, will, no doubt, contribute very greatly to the variety of useful products which add to our comfort and wealth.
The department keeps skillful chemists and naturalists constantly employed to gather information of various kinds, that may be useful to agriculturists. The character of soils, the influences of climate, the best system of farming, the diseases of domestic animals, and plants and their cure, the best
There is a statistical division, in which facts are gathered from the whole country and published monthly. This serves many useful purposes. It also collects data, for purposes of comparison and instruction, from foreign countries. Whatever facts it may be most useful for farmers to know, whatever crops it may be most profitable for them to produce, and whatever improvements in the modes of agriculture and in agricultural implements are discovered to be possible are communicated to all without cost.
Agricultural education receives much attention from the department, and all the facts and influences that can aid in making farmers thoroughly intelligent in their own pursuit, are gathered and employed with effect. Agriculture cannot but improve immeasureably under this fostering care, and this Department is likely to become one of the most important and useful in the government. It is yet in its infancy, but has already accomplished much good.
The commissioner reports annually to Congress. He has power to appoint such officers as Congress considers necessary. In 1868 a fine building for this department was completed at a cost of $140,000. It contains a chemical laboratory with all the necessary apparatus and materials, and a museum, or collection of specimens, of value in the study of agriculture, store-rooms for seeds to be sent throughout the country, &c. The beauty of the building and grounds adds a very attractive feature to the National Capital, and the Institution itself is a favorable comment on the wise and provident care bestowed by the government on the leading interest of the people.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT AND POST MASTER GENERAL.
This department of the government, whose head, the Post Master General, is a member of the Cabinet, exists by virtue of Section 8, Article 1st of the Constitution, where are these words: “Congress shall have the power to establish post offices and post roads.”
From small beginnings, in early colonial times, and continued through the Revolutionary War, it has grown to be one of the largest and most important departments of the government. The security, speed, and cheapness of intercourse between all parts of the country and with foreign lands, is of the utmost importance to business and commerce; it encourages social intercourse and intimate relations among the people, and is of no small consequence in developing their intelligence and promoting their improvement.
By successive laws of Congress it has been perfected to its present state of excellence. The duties connected with it are performed by many thousands of persons in every part of the country. They are of average intelligence and education, and must be trained to their work almost without personal instruction or supervision, yet so complete is the organization, and so pervading the influence of the central power, the regulations so simple, clear, and precise, that mistakes are extremely rare, considering the great number of transactions, and instances of misconduct in office are probably less frequent than in any other branch of the public service, though employing persons well trained and under close surveillance.
The Post Master General is appointed by the President and the Senate for four years. His office is in the General Post Office at Washington. He has three assistants, appointed in
He has the entire direction and management of the Department, and the appointment of all local postmasters (in law considered as his deputies), whose salary is less than $1,000 per annum. All others are appointed by the President and Senate.
That its business may be more conveniently arranged and prepared for his final action, it is distributed among several bureaus, or minor departments as follows:
THE APPOINTMENT OFFICE.
Includes the divisions of appointments; bonds given by postmasters, agents, and clerks; salaries and allowances, where they are not provided for by law; free delivery in cities; and the agency of blanks used in the extensive business and reports of the department. This office is in charge of the First Assistant Post Master General.
THE CONTRACT OFFICE.
This includes the divisions of contracts for carrying the mails, by persons or companies; the inspection of the entire process of carrying the mails, to secure their safe, regular, and prompt delivery; mail equipment, or the supply of all the material and conveniences for transportation of the mail, furnished by the department; special agents, and mail depredations, which has the care of all violations of law and the conduct and accounts of all agents employed for the suppression and prevention of abuses; and the Topographical, which has charge of maps and diagrams of mail routes, and geographical information, required for the various branches of the service. It is in charge of the Second Assistant Post Master General.
THE FINANCE OFFICE.
This is separated into the divisions of Finance, which has charge of the entire cash receipts, transfers, and disbursements of the department; of postage stamps and stamped envelopes, newspaper wrappers, and postal cards; registered letters and seals; and the examination of Dead Letters and their return to the writers. Dead letters are those not taken out of the office to which they were sent. After being advertised three weeks in some newspaper near the office where they were sent, they are returned to the General Post Office, where they are examined; and if they contain money or valuable papers they are returned to the writers and an account of them kept at the General Post Office. The sums, so lost and taken care of, amount annually to tens of thousands of dollars. The Third Assistant Post Master General has charge of it.
THE MONEY ORDER OFFICE.
The Money Orders System furnishes very convenient and safe banking facilities for the transfer of money in small sums. It diminishes as much as possible the exposure of money to loss by theft or otherwise, through the plan of depositing in one office, and sending a certificate of such deposit which is good for the money at another office. Immense sums are so exchanged and business facilitated without any actual passage of the money from one point to the other. When it is necessary to preserve the balances it is done by, and at the risk of, the department.
No more than fifty dollars can be sent in one order, nor more than three orders to the same person in one day. The number of these offices is more than 1,400.
The rates of commission on money orders are,
| On orders not exceeding $10 | 5 | cents. | |||
| Over | $10, | and not exceeding | $20 | 10 | cents. |
| ” | $20, | ” ” | $30 | 15 | cents. |
| ” | $30, | ” ” | $40 | 20 | cents. |
| ” | $40, | ” ” | $50 | 25 | cents. |
No fractions of cents allowed in orders.
When a money order has been lost or destroyed, a duplicate can be got, by the person who bought the order or by the person it was bought for, by applying either at the office where the order was bought or at the office where it should be paid. The Money Order Department is in charge of the Superintendent of the Money Order System.
An international money order system, between the United States and Switzerland, went into operation September 1st, 1869, whereby the exchange of Postal orders between the two countries is effected through the agency of two Post Offices termed International Exchange Offices. The Office of New York City being set apart for the United States, and that of Basle, in Switzerland, for that country. The amount drawn for cannot exceed fifty dollars in one order, three orders only can be obtained by the same person in one day. The system works satisfactorily, and will no doubt be extended to Great Britain, and perhaps other European Nations at an early day.
THE OFFICE OF FOREIGN MAILS.
It has the care of all foreign postal arrangements and the supervision of the ocean mail service. It is presided over by a Superintendent.
THE AUDITOR OF THE TREASURY FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT.
This is a bureau of the Treasury Department, which, for convenience, is located in the General Post Office. To this officer is assigned the duty of auditing the accounts of the Post Office Department, all communications relating to the accounts of postmasters, mail contractors, and other agents of the Department, are addressed to this officer.
The head of so large and important a department of the public service is properly a chief officer of the government and has a seat in the cabinet.
NUMBER OF POST OFFICES AND MILES OF POST ROADS IN THE U. S.
| In | 1790 | there were but | 75 | post offices, and | 1,875 | m. of post-roads. |
| 1800 | ” | 903 | ” | 20,817 | ” | |
| 1810 | ” | 2,300 | ” | 36,400 | ” | |
| 1820 | ” | 4,500 | ” | 72,492 | ” | |
| 1830 | ” | 8,450 | ” | 115,176 | ” | |
| 1840 | ” | 13,463 | ” | 155,739 | ” | |
| 1850 | ” | 18,417 | ” | 178,672 | ” | |
| 1860 | ” | 28,498 | ” | 240,594 | ” | |
| 1870 | ” | 28,492 | ” | 231,232 | ” |
POSTMASTERS GENERAL.
- Samuel Osgood, Mass., Sept. 26, 1789.
- Timothy Pickering, Mass., Aug. 12, 1791.
- Joseph Habersham, Ga., Feb. 25, 1795.
- Gideon Granger, Ct., Nov. 28, 1801.
- Return J. Meigs, O., March 17, 1814.
- John McLean, O., June 25, 1823.
- William T. Barry, Ky., March 9, 1829.
- Amos Kendall, Ky., March 1, 1835.
- John M. Niles, Ct., May 18, 1840.
- Francis Granger, N. Y., March 6, 1841.
- Charles A. Wickliff, Ky., Sept. 13, 1841.
- Cave Johnson, Tenn., March 5, 1845.
- Jacob Collamer, Vt., March 7, 1849.
- Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., July 20, 1850.
- S. D. Hubbard, Ct., Aug. 31, 1852.
- James Campbell, Pa., March 5, 1853.
- Aaron V. Brown, Tenn., March 6, 1857.
- Joseph Holt, Ky., March 14, 1859.
- Horatio King, Jan. 1, 1861.
- Montgomery Blair, Md., March 7, 1861.
- William Dennison, O., Oct. 1, 1864.
- Alexander W. Randall, Wis., July 15, 1866.
- J. A. J. Creswell, Md., March 5, 1869.
- ” ” reappointed March 17, 1873.
- Marshall Jewell, July 1874.
CHAPTER XL.
RATES OF POSTAGE IN THE UNITED STATES
On each letter weighing not more than one-half ounce three cents, and for each additional half-ounce or fraction thereof, three cents.
All packages containing matter not in itself chargeable with letter postage, but in which is enclosed or concealed any letter, memorandum, or other thing chargeable with letter postage, or upon which is any writing or memorandum; and manuscripts for publication in newspapers, magazines, or periodicals—three cents for each half-ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.
On local or drop letters, at offices where free delivery by carriers is established, two cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof; and where free delivery has not been established, one cent for each half ounce or fraction thereof.
On seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots and scions, one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.
On pamphlets and occasional publications, all transient printed matter, unsealed circulars, book manuscripts, proof sheets, corrected proof sheets, maps, prints, engravings, etc., one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.
On samples of ores, metals, minerals, and merchandise, one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.
On books, one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.
All domestic matter, including newspapers, magazines and periodicals sent to actual subscribers from a known office of publication, must be prepaid by postage stamps affixed thereto.
Newspapers issued weekly, or oftener, and sent from publishers or news agents, to subscribers or dealers, two cents per pound; and if not issued as often as weekly, three cents per pound.
Papers sent miscellaneously, and not regularly, postage the same as on books.
FOREIGN POSTAGE.
| FOREIGN COUNTRIES. | Letters per ½ oz. | News papers not exceed’g 4 oz. |
|---|---|---|
| Alexandria, Egypt, British closed mail via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| Aspinwall, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Australia, British mail via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| ” ” ” Brindisi | 22 | 8 |
| ” German mail, direct, via Brindisi | † 20 | 12 |
| Austria, including Hungary, German mail, direct | † 6 | 3 |
| ” ” ” ” closed mail via England | † 7 | 4 |
| Belgium, by direct steamers | † 6 | 3 |
| ” via Great Britain | † 8 | 4 |
| Bermuda, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Brazil | 15 | 3 |
| ” British mail | 28 | 4 |
| British Columbia (Letters unpaid 10 cents per ½ oz.) | † 6 | 2 |
| Canada, England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland (unpaid 10c. per ½ oz.) | † 6 | 2 |
| Postal Cards to Canada or British Columbia one cent extra. | ||
| Central America * | 10 | 2 |
| Chili, via Panama | 22 | 4 |
| China, via San Francisco | 19 | 2 |
| ” Southampton | 28 | 6 |
| ” Brindisi | 34 | 8 |
| Constantinople, German mail, direct | 10 | 6 |
| ” ” closed mail, via England | 11 | 7 |
| Cuba, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Denmark * | 7 | 4 |
| East India, British, via San Francisco | 10 | — |
| ” ” ” British mail, via Southampton | 22 | |
| ” ” ” ” ” Brindisi | 28 | 8 |
| Ecuador | 20 | * 2 |
| Egypt, except Alexandria British mail, via Southampton | 20 | 6 |
| Falkland Islands, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| France, direct * | 10 | 2 |
| Germany, via Hamburg or Bremen, direct | † 6 | |
| ” closed mail, via England | † 7 | |
| Postal Cards to Germany one cent additional. | ||
| Gibraltar, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| Gold Coast, ” ” ” | 16 | 4 |
| Great Britain and Ireland | † 6 | 2 |
| Greece, German mail, direct | † 14 | 9 |
| Guatemala, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Havana, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Hawaiian Islands, U. S. packet (Newspapers one cent per ounce) | 6 | — |
| Holland | 10 | 4 |
| Honduras, via St. Thomas | 18 | 4 |
| Hong Kong, including Canton, Amoy, Swatow, and Foo-Chow, U. S. packet | 10 | 2 |
| Hong Kong, British mail, via Southampton | 28 | 6 |
| Italy * | † 10 | 4 |
| Jamaica, U. S. packet * | 10 | 2 |
| Japan, U. S. packet | 10 | — |
| Java, British mail, via Southampton | 28 | 6 |
| Jerusalem, German mail, direct | † 11 | 7 |
| ” ” closed, via England | † 12 | 8 |
| Malta, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| Mexico, U. S. packet (by sea) | 10 | 3 |
| Morocco, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| Natal, ” ” ” | 28 | 4 |
| Netherlands, same as Holland. | ||
| Newfoundland | 6 | 2 |
| New South Wales, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| New Zealand, ” ” ” | 16 | 4 |
| Norway, via England and Christiana | 10 | 4 |
| Panama, U. S. packet | 10 | 3 |
| Paraguay, U. S. packet (Newspapers 4 cents each) | 18 | 4 |
| Peru, British mail, via Panama, ” | 22 | 4 |
| 16 | 6 | |
| Prince Edward Island (Unpaid letters 10 cents each ½ oz.) | 6 | 2 |
| Russia, German mail, direct | 10 | 6 |
| ” ” closed mail, via England | † 11 | 7 |
| Sandwich Islands (Newspapers one cent per two ounces) | 6 | — |
| Shanghai, U. S. packet | 10 | 2 |
| Sierra Leone, British mail, via Southampton | 16 | 4 |
| Spain, German mail, direct | 11 | 6 |
| ” via New Orleans * | 10 | 2 |
| Sweden and Norway, by direct steamers for U. S. | † 6 | 2 |
| Sweden, via England and Christiana | 9 | 4 |
| Switzerland, via England | † 10 | 4 |
| ” ” Germany | † 8 | 3 |
| Vancouver’s Island (Letters, if unpaid, 10 cents per ½ oz.) | † 6 | 2 |
| West Indies, except otherwise stated, via St. Thomas | 18 | 4 |
* Denotes that the postage is the United States postage only, which must be prepaid on matter sent and collected on matter received.
† Denotes that prepayment of postage is optional; in all other cases it is compulsory.
Great Britain and Ireland.—Letters wholly unpaid or insufficiently prepaid are subject on delivery, in addition to the deficient postage, to a fine of 6 cents in the United States and 3d. in Great Britain. Book manuscript and corrected proof may be sent at book-packet rate of postage.
CHAPTER XLI.
REGISTERED AND DEAD LETTERS.
REGISTERED LETTERS.
Within the last few years the Registered Letter Department has grown to enormous proportions. In former times the registering of a letter was only a notice to those handling it that it was valuable, the process being to simply paste a Registered Letter Bill to the letter and place it among the ordinary letters. If any officer was dishonest and wanted the letter, all he had to do was to take it and destroy the bill, and the chances of detection were very slight. The fee was small and the safety smaller. Under the new system which has been in operation some few years, and is copied from England, the safe
If a registered letter should not reach its destination in a reasonable length of time after the receipt of the return bill, the post master will notify the post master at the mailing office of the non-receipt of the letter. It then becomes the duty of the last mentioned officer to inform a special agent of the fact, who will make out what is called a “tracer,” which is a complete description of the letter, with blank space for each person who handled the original letter to state, from his records and receipts, exactly what disposition he made of it and whose receipt he holds; he then passes it along to the next. Thus by this complete chain of records and receipts, though it may reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific, a registered letter may be readily traced to its final destination, or until the records cease. If a break should occur in the chain and the loss be fastened upon any post office or mail agent, the case is rigidly “investigated” by the proper officer, and if it appears that the loss occurs through carelessness, the loser is made to pay the value of the lost letter, and receive a severe reprimand, and if it should occur again is very apt to be dismissed the service. If the special detective is convinced that the missing letter is stolen, he then takes a different course and commences his system of “decoys,” etc., to catch the thief, and is almost always successful, as the man who robs the mails always becomes careless, and grows bolder with each repetition of the offense.
The amount and extent of the registered letter business may be judged when it is stated that during the month of January, 1874, at the post office in New York over sixty thousand registered letters were received, nearly thirty thousand of which were for delivery in the city, and the rest for other places, New York being a distributing office.
DEAD LETTERS.
About all that people know or understand of the workings of the Dead Letter bureau of the Post Office Department is that if a letter is not delivered in due time it is sent to the Dead Letter Office, and there opened and returned to the writer. When, each year, they see the report of the Postmaster General, the amount of money and number of letters that are returned to the senders seems enormous, but when it is considered that millions of letters and thousands of dollars are carried and safely delivered correctly each year in the United States, the number that fails of delivery, by contrast, does not seem so great. During the month of November, 1873, nearly ten millions of letters were received and dispatched in New York City.
Every effort is always made to return money or any articles of value which may be found in dead letters. It is required that everything valuable shall be registered free when returned to the owners; but if for any reason it cannot be delivered to the rightful owner, it is held in the Department subject to the owners control for four years, and after that time it is conveyed to the Treasury, and goes towards decreasing the annual deficit in the Post Office Department. All letters which are properly stamped and addressed, and go to their destination, but are not delivered at the end of one week, by reason of the person addressed not being found, are advertised, either by publishing once in a daily or weekly paper, or by posting the list in a conspicuous place in the office. At the end of four weeks all then undelivered are sent to the dead letter office. The matter of advertising in newspapers is left to the discretion of the Postmaster General, and it is but few of the larger offices that are allowed to do so. The compensation is fixed by law at one cent for each letter, which is to be paid by the person receiving the letter; but by reason of the fact that by far the larger portion of those advertised are not delivered, the expense is so great that but few offices can be allowed to advertise. All letters which are dropped into an office without
A great many articles which are of value only to the senders or the persons for whom they are intended, such as little baby shoes, stockings, photographs, etc., etc., find their way to the Dead Letter office. Special effort is always made to deliver things of this character. Perhaps the little shoe or stocking may have belonged to some little one whose feet are still forever, and is being sent to a grandmother or some other near relation as a memento of the little one that is gone. Such articles as this may be of no possible value to any one but the owners, but the post office authorities make as great an effort, even greater to deliver this class of articles, than they do money or jewels. At the present time in the Dead Letter office are great stores of small articles of very little or no value to any but the owners, waiting to be called for.
CHAPTER XLII.
ATTORNEY GENERAL.
It will be readily perceived that, in a country developing so rapidly as ours, producing, thereby, an almost unbroken series of new situations, requiring a cautious application of old laws and the constant enactment of new ones, and so, a danger of confusion of legislative rules, that the President and his
To answer these requirements, the office of Attorney General was created by the first Congress in 1789. He is a member of the Cabinet, is nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the President. He has an assistant and various clerks to aid him in the discharge of his responsible duties.
By an act passed in 1861 he is made Superintendent of all the Attorneys and Marshals in all the Judicial Districts of the United States. His office is at the seat of Government.
The following is a complete list of the Attorneys General:
ATTORNEYS GENERAL.
- Edmund Randolph, Va., Sept. 26, 1789.
- William Bradford, Pa., June 27, 1794.
- Charles Lee, Va., Dec. 10, 1795.
- T. Parsons, Mass., Feb. 20, 1800.
- Levi Lincoln, Mass., March 5, 1801.
- Robert Smith, Md., March 2, 1805.
- John Breckinridge, Ky., Dec. 1806.
- CÆsar A. Rodney, Del., Jan. 20, 1807.
- William Pinckney, Md., Dec. 11, 1811.
- Richard Rush, Pa., Feb. 10, 1814.
- William Wirt, Md., Dec. 16, 1817.
- John McPherson Berrien, Ga., Mar. 9, 1829.
- Roger B. Taney, Md., July 20, 1831.
- Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1833.
Felix Grundy, Tenn., July 7, 1838. - Henry D. Gilpin, Pa., Jan. 11, 1840.
- John J. Crittenden, Ky., Mar. 5, 1841.
- Hugh S. LegarÉ, S. C., Sept. 13, 1841.
- John Nelson, Md., July 1, 1843.
- John Y. Mason, Va., Mar. 5, 1845.
- Nathan Clifford, Me., Oct. 16, 1846.
- Isaac Toucey, Ct., Jan. 21, 1848.
- Reverdy Johnson, Md., Mar. 7, 1849.
- John J. Crittenden, Ky., July 20, 1850.
- Caleb Cushing, Mass., Mar. 5, 1853.
- Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Mar. 6, 1857.
- Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Dec. 14, 1860.
- Edward Bates, Mo., Mar. 5, 1861.
- James Speed, Ky., Dec. 1864.
- Henry Stanberry, O., July, 1866.
- William M. Evarts, N. Y., 1868.
- Eben E. Hoar, March 5, 1869.
- Amos T. Akerman, Ga., July 8, 1870.
- George H. Williams, Oregon, 1871.
- Edward Pierrepont, New York, 1875.
CHAPTER XLIII.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS.
An Elector, in the sense of the Constitution, is one who has been appointed to choose or elect the President of the United States. Electors have been chosen in various ways. At first they were often appointed by the State Legislatures, or these passed a law directing their election by the people. This has gradually disappeared, and now the people, by law of Congress assemble on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November preceding the close of a presidential term, and vote for the electors. The electors in each State are called its Electoral
Their success in making their own choice authoritative has led them to overlook the incongruity of the system, so that they have never resolutely required it to be abolished. Perhaps the idea that it might be useful in some important crisis of national affairs has had an influence to prevent interference with it. As its retention is attended with considerable expense, when questions of Economy come to take a leading place in public policy it is likely to be laid aside, in form, as well as in fact.
The elections for President, Congressmen, Governors of the States and their Legislatures, determining the general policy of the government, and the class of men who shall be appointed to the various minor offices under its control; those who feel a strong interest in that policy from their judgment of its effect on the welfare of the country, or their desire to promote special measures; and those who are anxious to obtain or hold office, are very warmly interested in them. They divide into parties according to their views and exert themselves to the utmost to influence the result.
Most human affairs have their good and bad side, and this is not an exception. This party warmth is useful in causing discussion, examination, and thought, and stirring up the people to a careful study of their institutions and the principles of government, and the effect which particular measures may have on the public welfare. Its tendency, in this direction is, to make all the people statesmen—a point of the highest importance in a free government, where the People are Sovereign. The disadvantage is, that it often awakens an undue degree of passion and prejudice, the parties and men who are candidates for office abuse and misrepresent each other in order to destroy each others influence, when, perhaps, they are equally in earnest in seeking the good of the country. For this there is no apparent remedy, but in the intelligence and good sense of the people themselves. They must learn to be
CHAPTER XLIV.
THE HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS.
The Presidents of the Continental Congress—as the Legislative body of the United States was called up to 1789, when the new Constitution went in effect—were chosen by its members, which then consisted of only one House, in the same manner as the Speaker of the House of Representatives is chosen now; nor was his authority more extensive. He was simply the presiding officer of a legislative body; and one that had by no means the effective authority of our present Congress, although no body in the world ever more deserved the gratitude and reverence of all time; for it founded and gave direction and character to a great nation—it may be, the greatest the world will ever know.
These Presidents had little, except the name, in common with the Presidents of the United States, as the Constitution made them. The Presidents were now to be appointed by the people, and become the depositaries of the Power of the Nation in Action. It was fit that, in a government deriving all its authority from the People, as the source of power, its Special Agent, its acting Representative, should be chosen by them.
In the summer of 1788 three-fourths of the States had ratified the Constitution, and it became authoritative as the Fundamental Law of the country. The Continental Congress, therefore, closed its own career by ordering elections for the
This brought all these important events close upon the heels of one another; and on the 4th of March there was not a quorum of the Members of Congress assembled. The States lay far apart, and the roads were bad in those times, and at that season of the year. Though a bare quorum had gathered by the last of March, and many measures of pressing necessity were attended to, a full representation was waited for before the President elect was notified that they were ready for his inauguration; and that event took place only on the 30th of April. The presidential term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at the time previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so that it became the first day of our political year. It commences and closes the President’s term of office and ends the regular session of Congress.
First Election, 1789.
There were but 69 electors, and the choice of George Washington for President, and John Adams for Vice-President, was unanimous. He had declared, when resigning his commission as commander-in-chief, that he took leave “of all the employments of public life,” and only the earnest solicitations of the leading public men of the time, and their opinion that he alone could successfully inaugurate the new government, decided him to leave his cherished retirement. Washington’s ambition was known to be free from spot or stain of self seeking, and his moderation and judgment were trusted in as the sheet anchor of a new government which many feared would become too strong for the liberties of the people. They
The presidential electors were mainly chosen by the State legislatures during the times immediately following the adoption of the Constitution. That instrument did not decide how they should be chosen, but left it to the discretion of the State governments. In some States conventions chose them, and the practice was various; but after a time it proved to be more satisfactory to refer the choice directly to the people, and very soon the people themselves practically selected the President, the electors being pledged to the choice of the candidate favored by their constituents, so that their significance was lost. It is a proof of the popular character of our government. The system of electors indicated a fear of the people; a want of confidence in their judgment and self control. The electors, it was supposed, would be wiser, less accessible to passion and caprice than those who elected them. The people set them quietly aside, and proceeded to do their own work themselves, using the electors only to register their decision. Public men have seldom ventured to oppose the clearly formed and definite purposes of the people.
The Second Election, 1792.
Washington was again unanimously elected. He desired to lay down the burdens of office; but so many perplexing questions and disturbing influences threatened the stability of the government that he could not be spared. His name and character were a rock of strength. John Adams was re-elected Vice-President. Only 11 States had voted at the first election; North Carolina and Rhode Island not having then ratified the Constitution. They had now done so, and Vermont and Kentucky had been admitted, so that there were 15 States voting at this election. There were 132 electors. Washington declined another election absolutely, and the government had proved so suitable as to be fairly settled in the confidence of the people.
The Third Election, 1796.
Four persons were voted for at this election.
| John Adams | received | 71 | electoral votes. |
| Thomas Jefferson | ” | 69 | ” |
| Thomas Pinckney | ” | 59 | ” |
| Aaron Burr | ” | 38 | ” |
As, by the Constitutional provision regarding electors, the person having the largest number of votes became President, and the one who had the next in number became Vice-President, Adams was now President, and Jefferson Vice-President. Tennessee had now been admitted into the Union, and there were 16 States voting.
Conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal administration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for the next twenty years, was very bitter. Mr. Adams was a Federalist; Mr. Jefferson was an anti-Federalist.
The Fourth Election, 1800.
The same candidates were again in the field. The political parties had become clearly defined. Adams and Pinckney were the Federal candidates, receiving—Adams, 64, Pinckney 63, electoral votes, while Jefferson and Burr had each 73. They were of the anti-Federal, or Republican party.
The election did not decide which of the two, Jefferson or Burr, should be President and Vice-President, and, by the provisions of the Constitution, the House of Representatives decided it in favor of Jefferson. Party heats were so great that it took 7 days and 36 ballots to reach this result. It was felt that there was a defect in the Constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which of the candidates was the choice of the electors for President, and it resulted in the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next election.
The Federal party never regained the power of administration lost at this election, though they continued to be a strong opposition until the close of the war of 1812. But
The Fifth Election, 1804.
Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton were the candidates of the Republicans. Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King of the Federalists.
Jefferson was popular, and received 162 votes—Clinton receiving the same. Pinckney and King received only 14 votes. The admission of Ohio, in 1802, made 17 States to vote at this election.
The Federal party was much weaker than in the following election.
The Sixth Election, 1808.
James Madison was the Republican candidate for President, and Geo. Clinton for Vice-President. Pinckney and King were again candidates on the part of the Federalists.
| Madison | received | 123 | electoral votes. |
| Clinton | ” | 113 | ” |
| Pinckney and King each, | 47 | ” | |
Geo. Clinton died before the end of his term. There was the same number of States voting as in the previous election, viz.: 17.
The Seventh Election, 1812.
Madison was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry as Vice-President. They each received 128 electoral votes.
De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll, the candidates of the Federal party, received, Clinton 89, Ingersoll 57, votes. Louisiana having been recently admitted into the Union, there were now 18 States.
War with England was formally declared this year. It had
The Eighth Election, 1816.
James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins were the candidates of the Republicans, who now began to be called Democrats. The Federalist party was now near its end. It nominated Rufus King who received 34 electoral votes, Monroe obtaining 183.
Indiana was admitted this year in time to vote, making 19 States. This period marked an important era in the internal history, as well as foreign relations, of the country. The period of trial for the Constitution was passed, and full confidence began to be felt in the system it had founded.
The Ninth Election, 1820.
Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected, the vote being substantially unanimous, for the first and last time since Washington. The close of this term made the Republican rule in the administration 24 years in succession, under three Presidents, each once re-elected, and all citizens of Virginia.
Four new States had been admitted during the previous term, viz.: Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Maine, so that 23 States took part in this election.
The Tenth Election, 1824.
Four candidates were in the field for the presidency at this election. Missouri having been admitted since the ninth election
The candidates and votes were as follows:
| Andrew Jackson | 99 |
| John Quincy Adams | 84 |
| Wm. H. Crawford | 41 |
| Henry Clay | 31 |
By the Constitution the House of Representatives was required to select the President from the 3 candidates having the highest number of votes. They were to vote by States, and a majority of States would elect. J. Q. Adams received the vote of 13 States, and was declared elected. John C. Calhoun having received 182 electoral votes for the Vice-Presidency, was thereby elected to that office. 18 of the States appointed the electors by popular vote and 6 appointed them by their legislatures.
The Eleventh Election, 1828.
Andrew Jackson was elected President, and John C. Calhoun re-elected Vice-President.
John Quincy Adams and Richard Rush were also candidates for President and Vice-President, respectively. The contest was very hot and bitter. Jackson received 178, and Adams 171 electoral votes. The Popular vote was 650,028 for Jackson to 512,158 for Adams. The number of electors was the same as in the 10th election. The most violent excitement divided the north and the south on the tariff question, which culminated during this term in the “nullification ordinance,” which Jackson met with the decision and vigor for which he was distinguished, ending in the submission of the nullifiers. Calhoun resigned his office as Vice-President, Dec. 28th, 1832. He was the leader of the nullifiers.
The Twelfth Election, 1832.
Jackson’s vigorous dealing with nullification was highly approved by the people, and he was re-elected, with Martin Van Buren as Vice-President.
Henry Clay was the candidate of the Whig party for President, and John Sergeant for Vice-President.
| Jackson | received | 682,502 | popular, and | 219 | electoral votes. |
| Clay | ” | 550,189 | ” | 49 | ” |
| Jackson’s majority | 132,313 | 170 | |||
Van Buren received 189 electoral votes for Vice-President. Twenty-four States voted at this election.
The Thirteenth Election, 1836.
Van Buren was run, by the Democrats, for the Presidency, and Richard M. Johnson for the Vice-Presidency, against Wm. H. Harrison, Hugh L. White, Daniel Webster, and W. P. Mangum. Van Buren’s vote was 762,149 popular, and 170 electoral. Harrison and the others united was 736,736 popular, and 124 electoral. The whole number of electors being 294, the number necessary to a choice was 148. Johnson failed by one electoral vote to be elected to the Vice-Presidency, and the case went to the Senate for decision, as directed by the Constitution. The remaining electoral votes for Vice-President being divided between 3 candidates, Johnson was appointed by the Senate.
Michigan and Arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the election, making 26 States.
The Fourteenth Election, 1840.
The Whig party this year concentrated on Wm. H. Harrison for President, and John Tyler for Vice-President.
The Democrats opposed them with Van Buren and Johnson again. The country had been passing through a financial crisis of extreme severity during the thirteenth presidential term, and this election, involving the decision of a financial policy, was very exciting.
Harrison was an Ohio farmer, and, the Democrats said, “lived in a log cabin and drank hard cider.” The Whigs took the hint, built log cabins to hold their campaign gatherings in, drank much hard cider, and sung stirring political songs.
| Harrison’s | popular vote was | 1,274,783 | —his electoral vote | 234 |
| Van Buren’s | ” | 1,128,702 | ” | 60 |
| Majority, | 46,081 | 174 | ||
Tyler’s vote as Vice-President was the same as Harrison’s.
Harrison died on the 4th of April, one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency. His term was made remarkable by his disagreement with the measures of Congress, on financial questions.
This was the first time a Vice-President had been called on to serve as a substitute for the President. There were 26 States taking part in this election.
The Fifteenth Election, 1844.
The slavery question entered into this election as a leading point. The Republic of Texas asked admission into the Union. As it would be certain to be a slave State, and many of the people objected to extending that institution while others favored it, the parties took it up; the Democrats favoring the admission, the Whigs opposing.
James K. Polk was the candidate for President, and Geo. M. Dallas for Vice-President, run by the Democrats.
The Whigs opposed against them Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen.
| The vote for | Polk and Dallas was | 1,335,834, | electoral vote | 170 |
| ” | Clay and Frelinghuysen | 1,297,033, | ” | 105 |
| Polk and Dallas’ majority, | 38,801 | 65 | ||
This was the third time Mr. Clay had been defeated as a candidate for the Presidency, to the great regret of many, even of those who voted against him.
The war with Mexico followed as a consequence of the policy of the United States government, decided upon in this election. Texas had formerly been a part of Mexico, and that country considered its admission into the Union as an act of hostility to herself.
Sixteenth Election, 1848.
The Whigs were successful in this election, owing to a division in the ranks of the Democratic party. The Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor for President, and Millard Fillmore for Vice-President; the Democrats Lewis Cass for President, and Wm. O. Butler for Vice-President; the Free Soil Democrats—who opposed the extension of slavery—Martin Van Buren for President, and Charles F. Adams for Vice-President.
The vote resulted thus:
| Taylor and Fillmore’s | popular vote | 1,362,024, | electoral vote | 163 |
| Cass and Butler’s | ” | 1,222,419, | ” | 127 |
| Van Buren and Adams’ | ” | 291,678. |
The third ticket secured no electoral votes.
Four new States had been admitted into the Union since the 15th election, viz.: Texas, Florida, Iowa, and Wisconsin; and 30 States voted this year.
Gen. Taylor died July 9th, 1850, one year, four months, and four days after his inauguration, and Mr. Fillmore filled out his term of office.
The Seventeenth Election, 1852.
During the previous Presidential term the subject of slavery, and the strategy of politicians in favor of and against it, absorbed public attention. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 opened the whole question, and a trial of strength as to which side should occupy the new territory, was prepared for. The crisis of preparation had not been reached when this election occurred, and comparatively little interest was taken in it.
The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce for President, and Wm. R. King for Vice-President; the Whigs chose as their candidates Gen. Winfield Scott for President, and Wm. A. Graham for Vice-President.
Pierce and King received, of popular votes 1,590,490, of electoral, 254. Scott and Graham received, of popular votes,
California had been admitted since the 16th election, and there were 31 States to vote in this.
This was the last election in which the Whig party nominated a candidate. The contest in regard to slave and free territory absorbing all the interest of the country, the parties were rearranged, those in favor of slavery, or wishing to leave that institution undisturbed, gathered to the Democratic party; while those wishing to actively oppose the extension of slavery to territory not yet occupied by it, united, under the name of the Republican party, the Whigs becoming extinct, as a party.
The Eighteenth Election, 1856.
The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, and John C. Breckenridge for President and Vice-President; the Republicans, John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton. A third party, in favor of putting only native Americans in office, voted for Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donnelson. The result was the following:
Popular vote for Buchanan and Breckenridge 1,803,029, electoral, 174. Popular vote for Fremont and Dayton 1,342,164, electoral, 114. Popular vote for Fillmore and Donnelson, 874,625, electoral, 8.
Buchanan had only what is called a plurality popular vote; the two others united had a majority over him of 413,760 votes. A majority of electoral votes, however, was 149, and he received 174, and a majority of 52 electoral votes over the others united.
Only 31 States voted at this election. Mr. Buchanan was much blamed for not taking more vigorous measures to quench the secession movement that commenced in the last months of his administration. The contrast between his course and Jackson’s in 1832 was very marked.
The Nineteenth Election, 1860.
The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin for Vice-President. The
The Northern Democrats voted mainly for Stephen A. Douglas and H. V. Johnson; the Southern Democrats for John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane; and those who wished to stop the contest on the slavery question altogether, on both sides, voted for John Bell and Edward Everett. The result was as follows:
| The vote for | Lincoln and Hamlin was | 1,866,452, | electoral | 180 |
| ” | Douglas and Johnson | 1,370,157, | ” | 72 |
| ” | Breckenridge and Lane | 847,953, | ” | 39 |
| ” | Bell and Everett | 590,631, | ” | 12 |
The three divisions of the Democrats together had a popular majority of 947,289 over the Republicans, but the latter had a majority of 57 electoral votes over all the others united.
Two new States had been admitted since the eighteenth election, Minnesota and Oregon, and there were 33 States voting. The census of 1860 gave the population as 31,148,048. All the votes cast at this election amounted to 4,680,193, the largest number by more than 500,000 that had ever been known. The Southern States seceded within a few months, and the Civil War began. It was remarkable as the most gigantic war of its kind, perhaps of any kind, known in history; and for the obstinate bravery and resolution displayed on both sides. It continued during this entire presidential term.
The Twentieth Election, 1864.
The election this year was confined to the States that had remained loyal to the Constitution and the Union. Eleven States had seceded.
The Republicans re-nominated Lincoln for President, with Andrew Johnson for Vice-President. The Democratic party nominated Gen. Geo. B. McClellan for President, and Geo. H. Pendleton for Vice-President. The result was as follows:
| The popular vote for | Lincoln and Johnson was | 2,223,035 |
| ” ” | McClellan and Pendleton | 1,811,754 |
| Lincoln’s popular majority | 411,281 | |
| Electoral votes for | Lincoln | 212 |
| ” ” | McClellan | 21 |
| Lincoln’s electoral majority | 191 | |
The total number of popular votes was 4,034,789. Lincoln’s vote at this election was the largest that had ever been cast for one candidate, though there were less votes cast by all parties by 600,000 than in the nineteenth election. Two new States, Kansas and West Virginia, had been admitted since the previous election, which with the 11 in rebellion omitted, left 24 States voting.
The civil war closed with the submission of the seceded States to the general government soon after Lincoln’s re-inauguration; but he was assassinated about the same time, on the evening of April 13th, 1865, and died on the following day, leaving a nation in mourning, and the civilized world struck with horror. Andrew Johnson acted as President during the remainder of this term. Mr. Johnson’s administration was marked by the great difference in the policy of reconstructing the seceded States adopted by him and by the Congress, by the limitations which the latter threw around him, and the attempt to impeach him, which failed by a few votes.
The Twenty-First Election, 1868.
Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the Republicans for President, and Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President.
The nominees of the Democratic party were Horatio Seymour and Francis P. Blair.
Grant’s popular majority was 309,588. Questions of reconstruction and finance were determined by this election, the people upholding the policy pursued by Congress since the close of the war.
The Twenty-Second Election, 1872.
Grant was nominated by the Republican party for President, and Henry Wilson for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated Horace Greeley for President, and B. Gratz Brown for Vice-President. A second Democratic party had a ticket, nominating Chas. O’Connor and J. Q. Adams.
Grant’s popular majority was 762,991; and he received 218 electoral votes. 30 States gave him majorities, Pennsylvania reaching 137,000 majority in his favor. The whole popular vote at this election was 6,431,149. The colored people voted for the first time, under the amendment to the Constitution abolishing the distinction in citizenship in regard to color.
The elections are now held on the same day in all the States, by a general law. The number of States voting at the 22d election was thirty-seven. This election set a final seal on the policy of the Republican party, leaving the country free to turn its attention to other questions relating to its internal interests.
CHAPTER XLV.
CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS.
For convenience of reference we insert a list of the members of the Cabinet in each administration from 1789 down to 1874, to which is added the name of the Vice-President of each presidential term, though he is not a member of the Cabinet.
First Administration, from 1789 to 1797—7 years, 10 months, and 4 days.
- George Washington, Va., President.
- John Adams, Mass., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Thomas Jefferson, Va., Secretary of State.
- Edmund Randolph, Va., ” ”
- Timothy Pickering, Mass., ” ”
- Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Oliver Wolcott, Conn., ” ”
- Timothy Pickering, Mass., Secretary of War.
- James McHenry, Md., ” ”
- Henry Knox, Mass., ” ”
Second Administration, 1797 to 1801—4 years.
- John Adams, Mass., President.
- Thomas Jefferson, Va., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Timothy Pickering, Mass., Secretary of State.
- John Marshall, Va., ” ”
- Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Samuel Dexter, Mass., ” ”
- James McHenry, Md., Secretary of War.
- Samuel Dexter, Mass., ” ”
- Roger Griswold, ” ”
- George Cabot, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
- Benjamin Stoddert, Md., ” ”
Third Administration, 1801 to 1809—8 years.
- Thomas Jefferson, Va., President.
- Aaron Burr, N. Y., Vice-President.
- George Clinton, N. Y., ”
CABINET.
- James Madison, Va., Secretary of State.
- Samuel Dexter, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Albert Gallatin, Pa., ” ”
- Henry Dearborn, Mass., Secretary of War.
- Benjamin Stoddert, Md., Secretary of the Navy.
- Robert Smith, Md., ” ”
Fourth Administration, 1809 to 1817—8 years.
James Madison, Va., President. - George Clinton, N. Y., Vice-President.
- Elbridge Gerry, Mass., ”
CABINET.
- Robert Smith, Md., Secretary of State.
- James Monroe, Va., ” ”
- Albert Gallatin, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
- George W. Campbell, Tenn., ” ”
- Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., ” ”
- William Eustis, Mass., Secretary of War.
- John Armstrong, N. Y., ” ”
- James Monroe, Va., ” ”
- William H. Crawford, Ga., ” ”
- Paul Hamilton, S. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- William Jones, Pa., ” ”
- B. W. Crowninshield, Mass. ” ”
Fifth Administration, 1817 to 1825—8 years.
- James Monroe, Va., President.
- Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- John Q. Adams, Mass., Secretary of State.
- William H. Crawford, Ga., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Isaac Shelby, Ky., Secretary of War.
- John C. Calhoun, S. C., ” ”
- B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
- Smith Thompson, N. Y., ” ”
- Samuel L. Southard, N. J., ” ”
Sixth Administration, 1825 to 1829—4 years.
- John Q. Adams, Mass., President.
- John C. Calhoun, S. C., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Henry Clay, Ky., Secretary of State.
- Richard Rush, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
- James Barbour, Va., Secretary of War.
- Peter B. Porter, N. Y., ” ”
- Samuel L. Southard, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.
Seventh Administration, 1829 to 1837—8 years.
- Andrew Jackson, Tenn., President.
- John C. Calhoun, S. C., Vice-President.
- Martin Van Buren, N. Y., ”
CABINET.
- Martin Van Buren, N. Y., Secretary of State.
- Edward Livingston, La., ” ”
- Louis McLane, Del., ” ”
- John Forsyth, Geo., ” ”
- Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Louis McLane, Del., ” ”
- William J. Duane, Pa., ” ”
- Roger B. Taney, Md., ” ”
- Levi Woodbury, N. H., ” ”
- John H. Eaton, Tenn., Secretary of War.
- Lewis Cass, Mich., ” ”
- Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., ” ”
- John Branch, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- Levi Woodbury, N. H., ” ”
- Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., ” ”
POSTMASTERS GENERAL,
And for the first time considered members of the Cabinet,
- John McLean, O.
- William F. Barry, Ky.
- Amos Kendall, Ky.
Eighth Administration, 1837 to 1841—4 years.
- Martin Van Buren, N. Y., President.
- Richard M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- John Forsyth, Geo., Secretary of State.
- Levi Woodbury, N. H., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Joel R. Poinsett, S. C., Secretary of War.
- Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.
- James K. Paulding, N. Y., ” ”
- Amos Kendall, Ky., Postmaster General.
- John M. Niles, Ct., ” ”
Ninth Administration, March 4, 1841, to April 4, 1841.
- William Henry Harrison, O., President.
- John Tyler, Va., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
- Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury.
- John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War.
- George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- Gideon Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General.
Tenth Administration, April 6, 1841, to March 4, 1845.
- John Tyler, Va., (acting) President, by death of Harrison.
CABINET.
- Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
- Abel P. Upshur, Va., ” ”
- John C. Calhoun, S. C., ” ”
- Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Walter Forward, Pa., ” ”
- John C. Spencer, N. Y., ” ”
- George M. Bibb, Ky., ” ”
- John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War.
- John C. Spencer, N. Y., ” ”
- James M. Porter, Pa., ” ”
- William Wilkins, Pa., ” ”
- George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- Abel P. Upshur, Va., ” ”
- David Henshaw, Mass., ” ”
- G. W. Gilmer, Va., ” ”
- John Y. Mason, Va., ” ”
- Hugh S. LegarÉ, S. C., Attorney-General.
- John Nelson, Md., ” ”
- Francis G. Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General.
- Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky., ” ”
Eleventh Administration, March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1849.—4 years.
- James K. Polk, Tenn., President.
- George M. Dallas, Pa., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- James Buchanan, Pa., Secretary of State.
- Robert J. Walker, Miss., Secretary of the Treasury.
- William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of War.
- George Bancroft, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
- John Y. Mason, Va., ” ”
- Cave Johnson, Tenn., Postmaster General.
- John Y. Mason, Va., Attorney General.
- Nathan Clifford, Me., ” ”
- Isaac Toucey, Ct., ” ”
Twelfth Administration, March 4, 1849, to July 10, 1850—1 year and 4 months.
- Zachary Taylor, La., President.
- Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- John M. Clayton, Del., Secretary of State.
- George W. Crawford, Geo., Secretary of War.
- William M. Meredith, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
- William B. Preston, Va., Secretary of the Navy.
- Thomas Ewing, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
- Jacob Collamer, Vt., Postmaster General.
- Reverdy Johnson, Md., Attorney General.
Thirteenth Administration, July 10, 1850, to March 4, 1853.—2 years and 8 months.
- Millard Fillmore, (acting) President by death of Taylor.
- No Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
- Thomas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury.
- Charles M. Conrad, La., Secretary of War.
- William A. Graham, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Secretary of the Interior.
- Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., Postmaster General.
- John J. Crittenden, Ky., Attorney General.
Fourteenth Administration, March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857.
- Franklin Pierce, N. H., President.
William R. King, of Ala., who was elected Vice-President with Mr. Pierce, but died before he took his seat, and there was no Vice-President during Pierce’s administration.
CABINET.
- William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of State.
- James Guthrie, Ky., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Jefferson Davis, Miss., Secretary of War.
- J. C. Dobbin, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
- Robert McClelland, Mich., Secretary of the Interior.
- James Campbell, Pa., Postmaster General.
- Caleb Cushing, Mass., Attorney General.
Fifteenth Administration, March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1861.
- James Buchanan, Pa., President.
- John C. Breckenridge, Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Lewis Cass, Mich., and Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Secretaries of State.
- Howell Cobb, Ga., Philip F. Thomas, and John A. Dix, N. Y., Secretaries of the Treasury.
- John B. Floyd, Va., and Joseph Holt, Ky., Secretaries of War.
- Isaac Toucey, Ct., Secretary of the Navy.
- Jacob Thompson, Miss., Secretary of the Interior.
- Aaron V. Brown, Tenn., Joseph Holt, Ky., and Horatio King, Postmasters General.
- Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., and Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Attorneys General.
Sixteenth Administration, March 4, 1861, to April 14, 1865,—4 years, 1 month, and 10 days.
- Abraham Lincoln, Ill., President.
- Hannibal Hamlin, Me., Vice-President, first term, and Andrew Johnson, Tenn., Vice-President, second term.
CABINET.
- William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State.
Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, William P. Fessenden, Me., Hugh McCulloch, Ind., Secretaries of the Treasury. - Simon Cameron, Pa., Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Secretaries of War.
- Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy.
- John P. Usher, Ind., Secretary of the Interior.
- Montgomery Blair, Md., William Dennison, O., Postmasters General.
- Edward Bates, Mo., James Speed, Ky., Attorneys General.
Seventeenth Administration, April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869.
- Andrew Johnson, acting President.
- No Vice-President.
CABINET.
- William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State.
- Hugh McCulloch, Ind., Secretary of the Treasury.
- Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., and J. M. Schofield, Secretaries of War.
- Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy.
- James Harlan, Iowa, Orville H. Browning, Ill., Secretaries of the Interior.
- James Speed, Ky., Henry Stanbery, Ohio, William M. Evarts, N. Y., Attorneys General.
- William Dennison, Ohio, Alexander W. Randall, Wis., Postmasters General.
Eighteenth Administration, March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1873.
- Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., President.
- Schuyler Colfax, Ind., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Elihu B. Washburne, Ill., Secretary of State.
- Hamilton Fish, N. Y., ” ”
- George S. Boutwell, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury.
- John A. Rawlins, Secretary of War.
- William T. Sherman, ” ”
- William W. Belknap, ” ”
- Adolph E. Borie, Pa., Secretary of the Navy.
George M. Robeson, N. J., ” ” - Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
- Columbus Delano, O., ” ”
- J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General.
- Eben Rockwood Hoar, Mass., Attorney General.
- Amos T. Akerman, Ga., ” ”
Nineteenth Administration, March 4, 1873, to March 4, 1877.
- Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., President.
- Henry Wilson, Mass., Vice-President.
CABINET.
- Hamilton Fish, N. Y., Secretary of State.
- W. A. Richardson, Ill., Secretary of the Treasury.
- B. H. Bristow, Ky., ” ”
- W. W. Belknap, Iowa, Secretary of War.
- George M. Robeson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.
- Columbus Delano, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
- J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General.
- Marshall Jewell, Conn., ” ”
- George H. Williams, Oregon, Attorney General.
- Edward Pierrepont, N. Y., ” ”
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 1875.
The Executive.
| ULYSSES S. GRANT, of Illinois, President of the United States | Salary | $50,000 |
| HENRY WILSON, of Massachusetts, Vice-President of the United States, | ” | 10,000 |
The Cabinet.
| HAMILTON FISH, of New York, Secretary of State | Salary | $10,000 |
| B. H. BRISTOW, of Kentucky, Secretary of the Treasury | ” | 10,000 |
| WILLIAM W. BELKNAP, of Iowa, Secretary of War | ” | 10,000 |
| GEORGE M. ROBESON, of New Jersey, Secretary of the Navy | ” | 10,000 |
| COLUMBUS DELANO, of Ohio, Secretary of the Interior | ” | 10,000 |
| EDWARD PIERREPONT, of New York, Attorney-General | ” | 10,000 |
| MARSHALL JEWELL, of Connecticut, Postmaster-General | ” | 10,000 |
The Judiciary.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES.
| MORRISON R. WAITE, | Chief Justice | Salary | $10,500 |
| Nathan Clifford, of Me., | Associate Justice. | ||
| Noah H. Swayne, of Ohio, | ” | ||
| Samuel F. Miller, of Iowa, | ” | ||
| David Davis, of Illinois, | ” | ||
| Stephen J. Field, of Cal., | ” | ||
| William M. Strong, of Pa., | ” | ||
| Joseph P. Bradley, of N.J., | ” | ||
| Ward Hunt, of New York, | ” |
Salary of Associates $10,000. Court meets first Monday in December, at Washington.
Ministers to Foreign Countries
| COUNTRY. | CAPITAL. | MINISTERS. | SALARY. | APP’T’D. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY. | ||||
| Austria | Vienna | Hon. Godlove S. Orth, Ind. | $12,000 | 1868 |
| Brazil | Rio Janeiro | James R. Partridge, Md. | 12,000 | 1871 |
| Chili | Santiago | Cornelius A. Logan, Kansas | 10,000 | 1873 |
| China | Pekin | Frederick F. Low, Cal. | 12,000 | 1869 |
| France | Paris | Elihu B. Washburne, Ill. | 17,500 | 1869 |
| Great Britain | London | Robert C. Schenck, Ohio | 17,500 | 1870 |
| Italy | Rome | George P. Marsh, Vt. | 12,000 | 1861 |
| Mexico | Mexico | John W. Foster, Indiana | 12,000 | 1878 |
| Peru | Lima | Francis Thomas, Md. | 10,000 | 1872 |
| Germany | Berlin | J. C. Bancroft Davis, | 17,500 | 1867 |
| Russia | St. Petersburgh | George H. Boker, Pa. | 17,500 | 1873 |
| Spain | Madrid | Caleb Cushing, Mass. | 12,000 | 1874 |
| MINISTERS RESIDENT. | ||||
| Argentine Republic | Buenos Ayres | Julius White, Ill. | 7,500 | 1872 |
| Belgium | Brussels | J. R. Jones, Ill. | 7,500 | 1869 |
| Bolivia | La Paz | John T. Croxton, Ky. | 7,500 | 1872 |
| Central Amer. States | San Jose | George Williamson, La. | 10,000 | 1873 |
| Denmark | Copenhagen | M. J. Cramer, Ky. | 7,500 | 1870 |
| Ecuador | Quito | E. Rumsey Wing, Ky. | 7,500 | 1870 |
| Greece | Athens | J. Meredith Read, Pa. | 7,500 | 1873 |
| Hawaiian Islands | Honolulu | Henry A. Pierce, Mass. | 7,500 | 1869 |
| Japan | Yeddo | John A. Bingham, Ohio | 12,000 | 1873 |
| Netherlands | Hague | Charles T. Gorham, Mich. | 7,500 | 1870 |
| Portugal | Lisbon | Benjamin Moran, Va. | 7,500 | 1870 |
| Sweden and Norway | Stockholm | C. C. Andrews, Minn. | 7,500 | 1869 |
| Switzerland | Berne | Horace Rublee, Wis. | 7,500 | 1869 |
| Turkey | Constantinople | Hon. Horace Maynard, Tenn. | 7,500 | 1870 |
| Uruguay & Paraguay | Montevideo | John L. Stevens, Me. | 10,000 | 1871 |
| U.S. of Colombia | Bogota | William L. Scruggs, Ga. | 7,500 | 1873 |
| Venezuela | Caracas | William A. Pile, Mo. | 7,500 | 1871 |
| MINISTERS RESIDENT AND CONSULS GENERAL. | ||||
| Hayti | Port-au-Prince | E. D. Bassett, Pa. | 7,500 | 1869 |
| Liberia | Monrovia | J. Milton Turner, Mo. | 4,000 | 1871 |
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.
CHAPTER XLVI.
CONGRESS.
1. All government consists of three steps, series, or departments. It has a Rule by which its action is governed; and this embraces the general principles guiding all action, as well as the special rules of conduct in regard to limited classes of actions—the next step in the series is the action demanded to put its rules in actual force—to apply them—the third is, to determine the application of the rule when supposed to be violated, and the agreement of the special rule with the general principle. That is to say, government is divided into the Legislative, or law making power; the Executive, or law enforcing power; and the Judicial, or law discriminating, or judging, power.
2. In some governments all these are in the same hands, and this produces a Despotism. In others they are variously divided or mixed. In our country the separation between them is made as distinct as possible. The People are regarded as the source or fountain of Power. The Constitution represents, in its general Principles or Rules, the Will and purposes of the People; and outside of the principles or regulations of this instrument no legislation is valid. The Constitution, emanating from the people, defines the boundary of all the Departments. Congress is the law-making power, enacting within the prescribed limits. The Judiciary takes care that these limits are not overstepped by legislative enactments, or
It is Congress, the Legislative Authority, that we have now to consider.
3. The National Congress is a body of men representing, and acting in the place of, the people. They are elected by the people to enact laws for the public good—to do all—and no more nor less—than the people would do, if it were possible for them to assemble in one great body and make the laws by which they wish to be governed.
It was constituted as wisely, to guard against the errors to which humanity is liable, as the experience of the past permitted to the thoughtful and patriotic statesmen who had charge of the organization of the government, when the successful termination of the War of Independence left the interests of a new Nation in their hands. England, from which they had mostly sprung, and which governed them until that period, was in possession of the freest and most enlightened government of those times, in the Old World; and they copied from her institutions and general structure what they judged adapted to our circumstances; prudently avoiding untried experiments, as far as possible.
4. Congress, like the English Parliament, consists of two Houses, one, the House of Representatives, (answering to the English House of Commons) being directly elected, for a short term, by the people, so as to express their views and interests as clearly as possible; the other, the Senate, (answering partially to the English House of Lords) appointed by the State Legislatures for a longer term, and from among statesmen of acknowledged ability and mature character and experience. This was expected to supply the necessary check to hasty and ill considered action, as they were required to mutually agree on all laws enacted.
5. Both are required to assemble, at the same time, in the Capitol at Washington, on the first Monday in December of each year. This is the regular session—extra sessions being
The members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years, the members of the Senate for six. As the first contains by far the largest number, a Congress is said to exist for two years, and the 20th Congress would be the one existing during the 40th and 41st years of the Republic, dating from the first Congress in 1789.
THE SENATE
6. Is composed of two persons, chosen by the legislature of each State, to represent it as a whole. It makes no difference whether the State be large or small, whether population counts by the million or the thousand. The States are sovereign in their sphere, and this constitution of the Senate keeps that fact in view, operates against undue centralization of power, and oppression of the smaller States by the larger.
7. A Senator must be thirty years of age, must have been nine years a citizen, (he may have been born in a foreign State, and a citizen of it previously,) and must be a citizen of the State—(a voter in it) at the time of appointment. He is appointed for six years. The Senate is arranged in three classes so that the terms of one-third of the whole number shall expire every two years. They may be re-elected as often as the State legislatures choose. In one case, a Senator was continued thirty years in the Senate, without intermission. It has equal legislative power with the House of Representatives, except that it cannot originate laws for raising money, but it must approve and adopt all laws made by the House to render them valid. It has some powers that do not belong to the House. It confirms or rejects the nominations of the President, to office, and the treaties he makes with foreign powers, and is the only High Court of Impeachment.
8. When the Senate meets to consider the nominations of the President to office, it is called an Executive Session, and only a majority of votes is required to approve or confirm them; but when a treaty is to be ratified, or judgment given
The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of the Senate; but in case of a vacancy in that office, when he is acting as President, or if he be absent, it chooses a president from its own members.
THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
9. Is composed of persons elected by the people in the various States, in proportion to the number of inhabitants. A Representative is elected for a term of two years. He must be twenty-five years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States seven years, and must be a citizen of the State he represents. This is often called the “Lower House,” or popular branch of the National Legislature, as the Senate is sometimes called the “Upper House,” because it is more select, and greater in dignity.
10. The House of Representatives has the sole power of presenting articles of Impeachment, and it alone can originate laws for raising revenue. A larger part of the laws are actually originated in it, because it is more numerous, its members better known to the people whom they immediately represent, and the people are better acquainted with them; and more petitions for particular laws are sent to them. Each representative is voted for by the people of his Congressional District alone, and not by all the people of each State; and he specially represents the views and wants of his District.
In each branch of Congress, when a Bill, or plan of a law, has been passed, it is sent to the other House, where it is referred to a Committee who examine it, and report on it to the House; by which it is discussed and adopted, amended, or rejected according to its judgment, and returned to the House in which it originated. By this method every law is meant to be subjected to a careful and cool investigation, its defects discovered and corrected, and its appropriateness clearly made manifest. Whoever will examine, with care and thoroughness the whole structure of our government will everywhere discover
11. The presiding officer in the House of Representatives is called “The Speaker,” and is chosen by the House, at the beginning of each Congress. He serves during its two years of existence. The Clerk of the House and its minor officers are chosen by its members—and each House makes its own rules, or Parliamentary Laws. The term Congress properly covers both branches of the National Legislature; but, by custom, the members of the upper house are called Senators, and those of the lower Members of Congress, (commonly abbreviated to M. C.)
12. The Compensation of Members of Congress was originally fixed at eight dollars a day, but has, of late years, been several times changed. In 1856 it was made $3,000 per session, or $6,000 for a Congress of two years. In 1866 it was increased to $5,000 per session, and, in 1873 to $7,500 per session, the Speaker of the House, and the President of the Senate, by this last law, receiving $10,000 per year; but it produced so much dissatisfaction among the people that the law was changed at the following session, and they now receive $5,000 per annum.
13. The members of each house receive the same compensation. Mileage is allowed them in addition to the salary. This has been forty cents per mile, by the usual routes between
14. The first Congress under the Constitution met in New York City, where two sessions were held, when it was removed to Philadelphia. It remained there until 1800, when Washington became the capital. The Capitol there, in which Congress meets, is one of the largest buildings in the world; and the offices for the different executive Departments are immense structures. In 1874 there were 37 States and therefore 74 Senators. The number of Representatives was fixed by a law of March, 1873, at 292, at which number it will remain until the next census in 1880.
CHAPTER XLVII.
CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS—CONGRESSMEN.
1. Each State is entitled to a number of Representatives in Congress proportioned to its inhabitants; but, instead of counting the whole number together, and leaving all the people in the State to vote for all the representatives of their State, it is divided into districts, each containing the prescribed number entitled to representation. The voters, then, in each district, select or nominate the men they wish to vote for—and thus they find it easy to send men they know and on whom they can rely to secure their interests. Besides, it is more convenient for them to meet and ascertain by consultation who would be most acceptable to the majority of those interested. Each Member of Congress, therefore, is chosen by a single district. The districting of States is done by their State Legislatures.
2. Sometimes a State is admitted into the Union before it has as many inhabitants as the law requires to one Congressman, in which case the law is relaxed, and they are permitted at least one Representative. Contiguous counties or towns are set apart in this way and numbered as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., Congressional District. In large cities as many wards, lying together, as include the requisite number, are erected into Districts. In case the number of Congressmen allotted to a State is larger than the number of districts, those in excess are voted for by the State at large. They are arranged as soon as possible after every census, so that this does not often occur. In the Western States the number continually increases and changes must be made after each census. By this means the balance of power gradually follows the emigration from East to West.
CONGRESSMEN.
3. We have already remarked, in the chapter on Congress that, though the term Congressman properly applies to the members of both Houses, it is by common usage, confined to members of the lower House, those of the upper House being distinguished as Senators, so that the abbreviation M. C. (Member of Congress) is understood to specify a Representative.
4. These are the only members of any branch of the government who are chosen and elected directly by the people, and we may see herein the propriety of their having the control of all enactments for raising money, this being a point of vital interest to the people. The short term assigned them, (two years,) and their election by Districts, enables the people to interfere very soon if their purse strings are drawn too widely open—a very satisfactory reflection to the economical. Any citizen, whether native or foreign born, may become a Member of Congress, if he can obtain the consent of the voters in his district; but he must have been a citizen during the previous seven years. It is an office of dignity and responsibility, and the welfare of the country depends on the wisdom of the people in their choice.
CHAPTER XLVIII.
CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY.
1. In the capitol there is a large library, consisting of two parts; one part called the Congressional library, the other, the law library. The latter is made a part of the former by an act of Congress. Both are subject to the same laws and rules, and both are supported by appropriations made by Congress.
This institution, called as a whole, “The Congressional Library,” contains the works supposed to be useful to legislators, but is not confined to their use alone. Its use has been extended to the judges of the Supreme Court; to all the heads of departments; to the Attorney General; to all the members of the diplomatic corps, (foreign ministers); to the secretary of the Senate; to the clerk of the House of Representatives, to the chaplains of Congress, to all ex-Presidents, and to the solicitor of the Treasury.
2. It has a librarian, appointed by the President and Senate, who is allowed to appoint two assistants. No book or map is allowed to be taken out of the library by any person, except the President, Vice-President, members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives.
People in general, who are interested to do so, may obtain information from the books and records when properly authorized, under such restrictions as the circumstances require.
3. Here are kept all the laws which have ever been enacted by Congress, together with a record of all its proceedings, the laws of all the different States, with many of those of foreign countries; also a large collection of books on promiscuous subjects, useful to Members of Congress and to those who have to administer the government. No where else can so complete a history of the acts and proceedings of the government be found, as in the Congressional library at Washington.
This institution dates back to the year 1800, when an act was passed making the first appropriation of $5,000 for its establishment. The books purchased with this $5,000, with those belonging to both Houses, were placed together, and thus this library was commenced.
CHAPTER XLIX.
COPYRIGHTS.
A Copyright is an exclusive privilege given to any citizen, or resident in the United States to print, publish, or sell any book, map, chart, engraving, or musical composition of which he or she is the author or proprietor. This right is given by the laws of Congress. No State can give it. The object is to encourage authors, and to compensate them for their labors, which they could not be sure of obtaining if any one might publish and sell their productions. A copyright conveys all the rights of ownership, and may be bought and sold like other property.
Directions for Securing Copyrights under the Revised Act of Congress, which took effect July 8, 1870.
1. A printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail, prepaid, addressed, “Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.” This must be done before publication of the book or other article.
2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (or $1 in all) for each certificate of copyright
3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address
Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.
It is optional with those sending books and other articles to perfect copyright, to send them by mail or express; but, in either case, the charges are to be prepaid by the senders. Without the deposit of copies above required, the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. No copy is required to be deposited elsewhere.
4. No copyright hereafter issued is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the page following, if it be a book; or, if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion of the face or front thereof, or on the face of the substance on which the same is mounted, the following words, viz.: Entered according to act of Congress, in the year ____, by ____, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice “Entered according to act of Congress,” etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article.
5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize his own work. In this case notice should be given by printing the words, Right of translation reserved; or, All rights reserved, below the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record.
6. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or article copyrighted for a term of twenty-eight years. At the end of that time, the author or designer, or his
7. The time within which any work copyrighted may be issued from the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected work as well as for a completed one.
8. Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record is fifteen cents for every 100 words, and ten cents for every 100 words for a copy of the record of assignment.
9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished under seal, at the rate of fifty cent each.
10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, if issued or sold separately, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of engravings, photographs, or other articles published with variations, a copyright is to be taken out for each volume of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to size or inscription, of any other article.
11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as “cabinet size,” must be mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the completion of the work.
12. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right
Up to 1849 the Secretary of State had the care of issuing copyrights. It was then assigned to the newly created Department of the Interior, and so remained until 1870, when it was transferred to the Librarian of Congress.
CHAPTER L.
PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS.
1. These are the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The latter is chosen by ballot of the Members of the House. As this position gives him considerable influence over the course of legislation the party having a majority in the House are careful to select one on whose sympathy with their views and aims they can rely. When there is nearly or quite a balance of parties, it becomes an important and difficult matter to adjust; and has, in some instances, required a long struggle to elect the Speaker. The result, in such a case, usually determines which shall control the general legislation of that Congress.
2. The President of the Senate, under ordinary circumstances, is determined by the Constitution, that instrument devolving the office on the Vice-President. It is the only active duty assigned him while the President is in condition to perform the duties belonging to that office. It seems to befit his relations, being the highest honorary place in the government below that of President, subjects him to no superior, and, from the part the Senate takes in the responsibilities of the President, makes him acquainted with the general conduct of affairs; which may be an important advantage to him should he be called to act as President. In the latter case, and in case of the decease, resignation, or disability of the Vice-President,
3. Their duties are to open every sitting of their respective Houses by calling the members to order at the appointed time, on the appearance of a quorum to cause the journal of the preceding day to be read, to preserve order and decorum during the deliberations, to decide questions of order that may arise, (from which an appeal may be taken to the House, at the instance of any two members,) to formally state, and call for the votes on, a question to be decided, and to declare the result of the same after the vote has been taken.
This is the regular routine duty of a presiding officer. They, as the recognized Heads of their respective Houses, have the general oversight of its interests, and a general control of the conduct of its business. They examine the Journal to see that it is correct, may order the galleries and lobby to be cleared in case of any disturbance by spectators, and have general control over the unoccupied rooms in the capitol belonging to their respective Houses. They are required to sign all acts, addresses, and joint resolutions, and appoint the members of all committees whose appointment is not specially directed by the House to be otherwise made. In all cases of ballot the Speaker of the House must vote; but he is not required to vote in other cases unless there is a tie, (an equal number for and against,) when he must give the casting vote. The President of the Senate may vote only in case of a tie.
When the House of Representatives goes into Committee of the Whole, the Speaker leaves the chair, but appoints a chairman to preside for the time being; and when the President of the United States is impeached before the Senate the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides.
4. Their duties are very distinctly defined in the rules adopted by each House for their guidance, but many opportunities for exerting great influence often arise, and many cases requiring great tact and judgment and an intimate knowledge
The following are the names of all the Speakers of the House of Representatives. A list of Vice-Presidents is given in the chapter devoted to that officer.
| Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn., | 1789 | to | 1791 |
| Jonathan Trumbull, Conn., | 1791 | ” | 1793 |
| Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn., | 1793 | ” | 1797 |
| Jonathan Dayton, N. J., | 1797 | ” | 1798 |
| Theodore Sedgwick, Mass., | 1798 | ” | 1801 |
| Nathaniel Macon, N. C., | 1801 | ” | 1807 |
| Joseph B. Varnum, Mass. | 1807 | ” | 1811 |
| Henry Clay, Ky., | 1811 | ” | 1814 |
| Langdon Cheeves, S. C., | 1814 | ” | 1815 |
| Henry Clay, Ky., | 1815 | ” | 1820 |
| John W. Taylor, N. Y., | 1820 | ” | 1821 |
| Philip P. Barbour, Va., | 1821 | ” | 1823 |
| Henry Clay, Ky., | 1823 | ” | 1825 |
| John W. Taylor, N. Y., | 1825 | ” | 1827 |
| Andrew Stevenson, Va., | 1827 | ” | 1835 |
| John Bell, Tenn., | 1835 | ” | 1837 |
| James K. Polk, Tenn., | 1837 | ” | 1839 |
| Robert M. T. Hunter, Va., | 1839 | ” | 1841 |
| John White, Ky., | 1841 | ” | 1843 |
| John W. Jones, Va., | 1843 | ” | 1845 |
| John W. Davis, Ind., | 1845 | ” | 1847 |
| Robert C. Winthrop, Mass., | 1847 | ” | 1849 |
| Howell Cobb, Ga., | 1849 | ” | 1851 |
| Lynn Boyd, Ky., | 1851 | ” | 1856 |
| Nathaniel P. Banks, Mass., | 1856 | ” | 1858 |
| James L. Orr, S. C., | 1858 | ” | 1859 |
| William Pennington, N. J., | 1860 | ” | 1861 |
| Galusha A. Grow, Penn., | 1861 | ” | 1863 |
| Schuyler Colfax, Ind., | 1864 | ” | 1869 |
| James G. Blaine, Me., | 1869 | ” | 1873 |
| ” | 1873 | ” | 1875 |
CHAPTER LI.
SUBORDINATE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS.
1. The Secretary of the Senate and Clerk of the House of Representatives, are the officers next in rank in the two bodies forming Congress. They are appointed by vote of their respective Houses. They are not necessarily selected from among the members of the Senate or House, as is the custom in case of the presiding officers, but may be chosen by the members at will.
2. Their chief duties are in connection with a record or journal of the proceedings of their respective Houses. This is an official and correct account of all the transactions of each body, is examined by the presiding officer, and read before the members for criticism and approval. They cause this journal to be printed and a copy be delivered to each member at the commencement of every session of Congress, as also to the Executive and to each branch of the Legislature of every State. So also they arrange, cause to be printed, and distribute to the members all the current documents of each House that may be useful to them in the discharge of their duties, as often as the case requires. All contracts for furnishing anything required by Congress, or for any labor done for it, are made with, or approved by, the Clerk of the House and Secretary of the Senate.
3. They act also as treasurers of the special, or contingent funds of Congress, from which payments are made on their order, after the accounts, on which the order is based, are approved by the Committee of Accounts; and give bonds in a large sum for the faithful use of these funds, making a detailed report of all expenditures.
THE SERGEANT-AT-ARMS
4. Is a kind of police and executive officer, who aids or acts under the direction of the presiding officer in keeping order, and executes the commands of Congress. All arrests ordered
5. The other officers are a Doorkeeper—whose business it is to see that only the proper persons gain admission to the sessions of Congress, and watches over, and is responsible for, the furniture contained in the rooms of the capitol placed in his charge—and a postmaster, whose business it is to superintend a postoffice kept in the capitol for the accommodation of members of Congress. Various clerks, deputies, and messengers are employed under most of these officers, to aid them in the discharge of their duties.
CHAPTER LII.
CONGRESS AT WORK.
1. Congress is required by the Constitution to assemble on the first Monday in December of each year. It may, by a law duly made to that effect, change that time, but no permanent change has ever been made. As soon after that time as a quorum of its members, which the Constitution declares shall be a majority of each House, has assembled each House proceeds to the election of officers (which, however, is done only every other year,) and the arrangement of its committees, and it is ready for work.
2. As soon as the organization is ascertained to be complete the other House of Congress and the President are informed of the fact, after which propositions, or bills as they are called, of new laws, or repeals or revisals of old ones are entertained. Of these there is never any lack. They are taken up in regular order, referred to an appropriate committee for examination, a report is in due time made by the committee, discussed at such length as the members see cause for, in a regular manner,
3. When a bill has reached a vote and been accepted by the House in which it originated, it is sent to the other House, by which it is taken up, referred to a committee, usually passing through substantially the same course and form of consideration as in the first case, laid aside, amended, accepted or rejected according to circumstances, and returned to the former House. If it is accepted by both they then send it to the President, who carefully considers it. If it meets his approbation, he signs and returns it to Congress, and it becomes the Law of the Land, and all to whom it refers are bound to obey it, it being the duty of the President to see that it is enforced. It is called an “Act of Congress,” because it is the proper exercise of its law making authority, and because all such laws are preceded by the clause, “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled.”
4. If the President does not think it a suitable law, and is unwilling to assume the responsibility of signing it, he returns it to Congress, with his reasons for not doing so. If Congress is not satisfied with these reasons it may take another vote on it, and if the members in its favor amount to two-thirds of each House, it becomes a law without the signature of the President. This power of the President to decline to sign a law of Congress is called his “Veto.” Sometimes it is carried over the veto, and sometimes it fails for lack of the requisite number in its favor.
5. The larger part of Congressional laws are passed in this way, which is the regular Parliamentary form; but sometimes its authority is expressed by a Resolution instead of a bill.
A bill must pass through the regular forms of printing, reference to a committee, report, placing in order on the records, and calling up at a proper time for consideration and decision. This is very proper to avoid hasty action before all the bearings of the case have been examined; but would consume too much time if required in every case. A resolution may be debated and decided at once, and it facilitates the progress of business, in the class of cases to which it is applicable.
6. The amount of business to be done by Congress is immense. Each branch of the executive department makes a yearly report to it, which must be considered and suitable laws passed; many hundreds of laws are commonly asked to be passed, repealed, or revised, by the President or the people; and all the interests of a great and growing country looked after. Those who are at a distance cannot always judge accurately of the difficulties it meets with in endeavoring to give satisfaction to all, nor of the different appearance which questions may present when closely examined and looked at on all sides, and Congress has a great deal of short-sighted criticism to bear.
Congressmen cannot always tell what is best more than other
7. The more carefully the people whom they represent watch them at work, and study the subjects they are required to legislate on, the less reason will they find for denunciation of them, and the more intelligently will they be able to lay out their work for them. They are the servants of the people, notwithstanding they seem to command and order, and are liable to be dismissed and turned out of place if they do not give satisfaction. They are men like ourselves, with interests, temptations, and weaknesses. We should aid them in their work, and assist them to walk uprightly by our intelligence and careful regard for reason and right. Our representatives will always, in character and conduct, present a fair statement of what we are ourselves. If we are just, honest, and high-minded they will not dare to be otherwise than faithful and true, and if we are intelligent we shall never put ignorant and vile men in office. So the Congress of the United States of America will always be a truly Representative Body.
CHAPTER LIII.
PUBLIC PRINTING.
1. Among the Institutions of the government is that heading this chapter. The amount of printing required to be done for Congress, the various branches of the government, and for the benefit of the people, is very great indeed. All the proceedings of both Houses of Congress as recorded by the secretaries are required to be printed under authority; since many copies are required by the members and for general purposes.
2. The President’s Messages, and all the reports of heads of departments and bureaus; the reports and commissions of army and navy officers, of investigating committees, of various superintendents, agents, and government employees, and many other things are printed, sometimes only for use of Congress; sometimes for extensive circulation. Thus it is easily seen that the government printing is a heavy expense, and a very large part is indispensable; though many believe that a judicious selection of documents and a careful study as to the number of some of them printed might largely reduce the expense, without injury to the public welfare. We do not wish to pay for the printing of documents that are never read. It is a waste of the people’s money; yet, we must not forget that it is of the utmost importance that the people should become intimately acquainted with all the affairs of the government. Perhaps Congress is sometimes wiser than the people, and that many documents are wisely printed, and unwisely left unread by those most interested. Economy and intelligence are to be equally regarded.
3. Until 1860, the government hired men to do this work, and a printer was employed by each house of Congress. But great complaints were made of the enormous expense to which the country was subjected in this item of its expenditures; and at the date named, Congress passed an act establishing a government printing office, to be under the direction of a superintendent of public printing. The sum of $150,000 was appropriated for the purchase of necessary buildings, machinery, and materials for the purpose. By the provisions of the act it was made the superintendent’s duty to overlook all the public printing and binding, not only of Congress, but of all the departments, and of the United States courts; to purchase all
4. The superintendent is also charged with the duty of procuring all blank books, maps, drawings, diagrams, views, and charts, which may be ordered by Congress, or by the heads of departments and bureaus. But the superintendent himself is not left to act always as he may think proper, for in many cases he must have the approval of the joint committee on printing of both Houses of Congress.
5. This is a very proper effort to curtail expenses. It remains to be seen how successful it may be. The constant watchful oversight of the Sovereign People can alone succeed in keeping all things in due order. When the representatives of the people become careless and wasteful the admonition of the people is never without its effect.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE SIGNAL SERVICE.
1. The present organization of this institution dates from the beginning of the civil war, and was originally purely military in its aims and purposes. It is still conducted by the War Department, and partly for its own purposes; but its value to agricultural and commercial interests is constantly becoming more apparent and more extensive, and will probably, in the end, so overshadow its military relations as to reduce them to a very subordinate place in importance. The civil uses of this service are based on the science of meteorology, which is largely occupied with weather changes, the origin,
2. The objects of the Signal Service require its officials to be connected with the United States army, to have the use of the Electric Telegraph, to be familiar with Meteorology, and skillful in the use of the scientific instruments employed in the study of atmospheric changes. By means of the telegraph, the army, though scattered over the whole country, and especially the frontiers and more inaccessible parts, may be almost instantaneously, and all at the same time, communicated with. It would be possible, by telegraphs, signals, and railroads, to concentrate the whole army from the numerous points where its fragments are located, from Maine to Texas, and the Atlantic to the Pacific, at one point in as short a time as it formerly took a body of soldiers to march a hundred miles.
3. It is a singularly striking instance of the vigor and effectiveness of control supplied by science, invention, and modern progress, by which our vast increase in numbers and in extent of territory are neutralized, the interests, sentiments, and habits of the people unified so that sectional jealousies and contests are made rare and slight, and the people of remote parts of the country made practically better acquainted with
4. Subordination and thoroughness of system are secured by its connection with the army, which probably also secures its advantages to the country at much less cost than would be the case were it an independent institution. The army is ambitious to be as useful as possible to the country. There is a Signal School of Instruction and Practice at Fort Whipple, in Va., which is to this Service what the Military and Naval Academies are to the Army and Navy. The most suitable persons are selected from the army or especially enlisted, and carefully schooled and tested through a sufficiently long period to render them fully competent for the delicate duties imposed on them.
5. There are about 90 Signal Stations, a few being located in Canada and the West Indies. The whole is under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer, who reports to the Secretary of War. There is a large and carefully arranged organization, under constant supervision by competent persons. Several Boards of Examination are employed in selecting suitable persons for the different duties required in the Service, and in testing their advancement toward a thorough fitness for each position to be occupied.
The first or lowest grade is for the “field” signal service, requiring a knowledge of army signals and telegraphy—this being the original military value of the institution—the second grade includes those who are competent to act as assistants to observers in the scientific or meteorological part of the work; and the third (called Observer Sergeants) includes those who have so complete a knowledge of the scientific principles involved and of the use of the instruments employed as to be fitted to take charge of Stations of Observation, and make the constant and minute reports on which the conclusions of the Central Office are based.
The Stations are from time to time inspected, and the whole system kept in the most accurate order. Very much depends on the intelligence and unremitting attention of the Observers.
This is, probably, the beginning of a work of the greatest practical value to commerce and agriculture. It will continually expand and grow more exact and useful, and from its relations to the diffusion of important and useful knowledge we have placed it with
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
1. Though there are no doubt many minor failures to meet the wishes, and secure the interests of the people and some, perhaps, that are really serious—though in these the people bear a good share of the blame—the government has pursued an enlightened policy in respect to the encouragement of Science, and the diffusion of useful knowledge. What it can properly do in the interest of the whole people has been done. The Smithsonian Institution is not wholly a government establishment; but the official machinery by which it was at first set in motion, and is continued in operation, belongs to the government. The funds with which it was founded, were furnished by an individual, and he a foreigner. The history runs thus: A noble-hearted Englishman, whose name was John Smithson, residing in the city of London, bequeathed all his property to the United States of America, for the purpose of founding in Washington an establishment to be known as the “Smithsonian Institution,” for the purpose of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men. The United States accepted the bequest, and in 1846 passed an act for the purpose of carrying out the beneficent design of Mr. Smithson. This act created “an establishment,” as it is denominated in the act, by the name before stated. It might have been called a corporation, for it has perpetual succession, and many of the powers incident to a corporation.
2. By this act the President and Vice-President of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster General, the Attorney General, and Chief Justice, the Commissioner of the Patent Office, and the Mayor of Washington—during the time they shall hold their respective
3. It is located at Washington, and is managed by a board of regents, composed of the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice of the United States, the Mayor of Washington, three members of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives; together with six other persons. The board choose their own officers, and report their proceedings to Congress at each session thereof.
4. In order to carry out Mr. Smithson’s noble design of founding this institution, rooms have been prepared for the reception of all objects of art, natural history, plants, and geological and mineralogical specimens which now or hereafter may belong to the United States, and such as may hereafter be obtained. These are classified and arranged so as to facilitate their examination and study. A vast collection has already been obtained and deposited in the institution, and it is constantly increasing by donations, by the researches and industry of its professors, and by exchanges made with kindred institutions at home and abroad. These are open to the examination of the public, and offer an opportunity to students and others to extend their scientific knowledge. This, together with the reports of its professors, of experiments and new discoveries, make it indeed an institution “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”
CHAPTER LV.
REPORTS.
1. Congress being the law-making power of the government, it is evident that, to know precisely what laws it is important to enact, to change, or to repeal, they should be kept well informed of all that is done by government officials, and the precise condition of every branch of the public service.
2. In this way Congress is kept advised of whatever is done in every department, bureau, or board, to which any of the public business is entrusted. These reports not only furnish the law-making power with such information as it needs, but serve as a check to any official misconduct. The annual reports of the Secretaries of the Treasury, War, and Navy, together with that of the Postmaster General, are State papers which rank in importance next to the annual message of the President. To them the people look for a detailed account of the state and condition of those great departments over which these Secretaries preside, and which so materially affect the pecuniary and other great interests of the nation.
3. The foregoing remarks upon reports, throw light upon the movements of the machinery by which the government is operated, and show how officials are held responsible to the superior power.
In this connection we may notice another kind of reports, which come from another source. After each Congress has convened and organized, the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House appoint what are denominated the standing committees of each of these bodies.
When bills are presented to be passed into laws, or petitions are sent in, they are always referred to the appropriate committee, which examines them and reports to the body (of the Senate or House) their conclusions upon the merits or demerits, propriety or impropriety, of granting the petition, or of passing the bill under consideration.
These reports generally govern the action of Congress when they come to vote upon the passage of the law. But that is not always the case; the body of either House may think differently from its committee, and act contrary to its recommendations.
CHAPTER LVI.
IMPEACHMENT.
1. In the second article, section four, of the Constitution, these words are found: “The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.”
2. Impeachment is a procedure against office holders only, for the purpose of removing them from office. It inflicts no other punishment; but the guilty party may afterwards be prosecuted for his crime in a court of law, and punished in such manner as the law directs.
3. The House of Representatives alone can present charges looking to the trial of an officer of the government by impeachment. Its action, in such a case, is similar to that of a Grand Jury. It charges that the official has violated the law and should be tried, in order, if guilty, to be removed from office. It appoints a committee to conduct the prosecution before the Senate, to which these charges are presented.
4. The Senate alone has the power to try the accused party. When trying a case of impeachment it acts as a court, and from its decision there is no appeal. The President cannot pardon a criminal who has been impeached. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides, but in no other case. No person can be convicted in a trial of impeachment, unless two-thirds of the Senate concur in finding the accused guilty of the alleged offense.
THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.
This is the third Branch of the government, as determined by the Constitution, and is of supreme importance and dignity. Its sphere is to interpret the Constitution, to decide controversies, to try offenders and to pronounce sentence on them, to enforce rights, and to keep the whole organism of the government in proper place and proportion. It is attached to the governmental machinery as a Regulator. Without it the other Departments must be the judges of the extent of their own powers; the Constitution would be practically inoperative to prevent inharmonious or mischievous legislation; and the executive would possess the authority to try as well as punish offenses.
The officers of this Department of the government are expected to be men of much weight and dignity of character, of wide legal culture, and are selected for, and continued in, office under such circumstances as to guarantee, to a fair extent, the requisite distinction and impartiality.
All this we shall see as we proceed to analyze its different branches. These consist of the United States Supreme Court, the Circuit Courts, the District Courts, and the Court of Claims. The local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts, though similar to the State Judiciaries, are connected, by their relations to the General Government, with this Department.
The importance of this branch of the government has become more evident as time has passed, and the conflict of parties has put the whole to test. The acrimonious party spirit of our early post revolutionary history, which continued into Monroe’s administration, was, in great part, the result of a want of due confidence in, and respect for, the judiciary. Experience showed that our people were law abiding, and that the Legislative and Executive powers, equally with the people,
CHAPTER LVII.
THE SUPREME COURT.
1. This is the highest tribunal in the United States. If the whole government be figuratively regarded as an arch this is the “Key Stone of the Arch” without which the whole structure would crumble and fall. In all cases of dispute as to the meaning of the Constitution and the range of powers it confers, or implies, it has sovereign power to decide; and from that decision there is no appeal. Its declaration, as to the meaning and application of the Constitution and the body of statutes enacted under it, becomes the law of the land. It is the great bulwark against tyrannical use of power, and conflicting enactments, whether by National or State Legislatures.
2. This court has one Chief Justice and nine Associate Justices, all appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are appointed for life, or during good behavior; they may be impeached for bribery or other high crimes, and then removed from office. They may also resign; but if they conduct themselves properly and choose to retain their offices, there is no power by which they can be removed, except the power of death. The Constitution itself makes this provision, in order that the judges may be removed as far as possible from the influence of party politics. It is therefore expected that their decisions will not be biased by party or political considerations; and it may not be amiss to say that the provisions for keeping the judges of the United States Courts in office for life, meets with almost universal approbation; and has caused many to hope that the States would alter their Constitutions and adopt the same plan; believing it to be the surest way of preserving a pure and
3. This court holds but one term in a year, which commences on the first Monday of December, and sits until it has disposed of the business before it. Its sessions are always held at Washington, the capital of the nation; there it has access to the Congressional and Law Libraries, and to all the departments and records of the government when necessary.
There is a class of causes which may be commenced in this court. In these cases it has original jurisdiction. They are such as affect ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; and those in which a State shall be a party. In other cases it has only appellate jurisdiction. The greater part of its business is to hear and determine appeals from inferior courts, mainly from the United States Circuit Courts; and in some instances from the highest State courts.
4. It has not only original, but exclusive jurisdiction in causes where a State is a party, and when proceedings or suits against ambassadors, or other public ministers or their servants, are instituted. Its power to try appeals from lower courts, called appellate jurisdiction, gives it the position of the highest court in the nation.
It has power also to restrain or to prohibit proceedings in the United States District Courts, when acting as courts of Admiralty; or in cases of maritime jurisdiction. The judges of this court hold the Circuit Courts, and allot themselves among the judicial circuits.
The practice and rules of procedure in this court are very similar to those of the Courts of Chancery and King’s Bench, in England. Issues of fact are tried by jury, the same as in other courts.
OFFICERS OF THE COURT.
5. The officers of this tribunal are the Judges, the Attorney General, a clerk, a crier, and a reporter. The three last named are appointed by the court. It is the duty of the Marshal
An Attorney or Counsellor-at-Law, to be admitted to practice in this court, must have been a practitioner in the Supreme Court of the State where he lives.
6. The following are the names of all the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, from its establishment to the present time; with the dates of their appointments, and the States from which they were appointed:
- John Jay, N. Y., Sept. 26, 1789.
- John Rutledge, S. C., July 1, 1795.
- William Cushing, Mass., Jan. 27, 1796.
- Oliver Ellsworth, Ct., March 4, 1796.
- John Jay, N. Y., Dec. 19, 1800.
- John Marshall, Va., Jan. 27, 1801.
- Roger B. Taney, Md., Dec. 28, 1835.
- Salmon P. Chase, O., Dec. 1864.
- Morrison R. Waite, O., Jan. 21, 1874.
7. The following are the names of the Associate Justices with the dates of their appointment and the States from which they were appointed:
- John Rutledge, S. C., 1789.
- William Cushing, Mass., 1789.
- Robert H. Harrison, Md., 1789.
- James Wilson, Pa., 1789.
- John Blair, Va., 1789.
- James Iredell, N. C., 1790.
- Thomas Johnson, Md., 1791.
- William Paterson, N. J., 1793.
- Samuel Chase, Md., 1796.
- Bushrod Washington, Va., 1798.
- Alfred Moore, N. C., 1799.
- William Johnson, S. C., 1804.
- Brockholst Livingston, N. Y., 1807.
- Thomas Todd, Va., 1807.
Gabriel Duvall, Md., 1811. - Joseph Story, Mass., 1811.
- Smith Thompson, N. Y., 1823.
- Robert Trimble, Ky., 1823.
- John McLean, O., 1829.
- Henry Baldwin, Pa., 1830.
- James M. Wayne, Ga., 1835.
- Philip P. Barbour, Va., 1836.
- John McKinley, Ala., 1837.
- John Catron, Tenn., 1837.
- Peter V. Daniel, Va., 1841.
- Samuel Nelson, N. Y., 1845.
- Levi Woodbury, N. H., 1845.
- Robert C. Grier, Pa., 1846.
- Benjamin R. Curtis, Mass., 1851.
- James A. Campbell, Ala., 1853.
- Nathan Clifford, Me., 1858.
- Noah H. Swayne, O., 1862.
- Samuel F. Miller, Iowa, 1862.
- Stephen J. Field, Cal.
- David Davis, Ill., 1862.
- William Strong, Pa., 1870.
- Joseph P. Bradley, N. J., 1870.
- Ward Hunt, N. Y., 1873.
CHAPTER LVIII.
CIRCUIT COURTS.
The next in dignity, power, and jurisdiction are the United States Circuit Courts. While the Supreme Court is always held in Washington, these are held in every State at such times and places as special law of Congress directs. These are often changed so as to accommodate both the people in the States and the judges of the Court. As now arranged, the whole Union is divided into nine circuits, each circuit comprising several States, according to the size and population of the
This Court is similar in design and authority to the Supreme Court; indeed it is but a branch of it; the same officers presiding, and the same class of questions being adjudicated by it, viz.: those involving Constitutional Law; and this authority, so important to uniformity of interpretation of constitutional provisions, and to the enjoyment of rights guaranteed by that instrument to citizens of all the States, is made pervading—is carried within the reach of all.
2. The Circuit Courts are held by the Judges of the Supreme Court, who allot the circuits among themselves, and then travel each through his own circuit, until he has visited and held a session in every State which lies within it. A Judge of the Supreme Court is the presiding and supreme magistrate in every Circuit Court, but the Judge of the District Court of the district in which the Circuit is held, sits with the Judge of the Supreme Court, as Associate Justice.
JURISDICTION.
3. These Courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction. Causes may be appealed from the District Courts to the Circuit. They also have concurrent jurisdiction with the State courts, where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of $500, and the United States are plaintiffs; or where an alien is a party, or where the suit is between citizens of different States. They have exclusive jurisdiction in all cases of crimes against the United States, except where the law especially confers the power on other courts. It extends to all cases under the revenue laws of the United States.
4. There is also a certain class of cases (too tedious to be described here in detail,) which may be removed from State and from District Courts, into these courts, and be tried and determined in the same manner as if they had been commenced here.
The officers of Circuit Courts are, first, the Judges; second, the District Attorney of the district in which the court is
5. It may be interesting, and perhaps useful to know how the different circuits are formed, and what States lie in each. They have been from time to time increased in number, as the number of the States increased. In some cases States have been at first placed in one circuit, and afterwards detached and placed in another.
6. By the Acts of 1862 and 1863, the circuits were arranged as follows:
First Circuit—Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine and New Hampshire (by Act of 1820).
Second Circuit—Vermont, Connecticut, New York (Act of 1837).
Third Circuit—New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
Fourth Circuit—Maryland, Virginia, Delaware and North Carolina.
Fifth Circuit—South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida.
Sixth Circuit—Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky and Tennessee.
Seventh Circuit—Ohio and Indiana.
Eighth Circuit—Michigan and Illinois.
Ninth Circuit—Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Minnesota.
Tenth Circuit—California and Oregon.
But in 1866 this arrangement of the circuits was again changed; and this was done, we suppose, to make the circuits approximate nearer to the number of Associate Justices, as reduced from nine to six by the same act; for, it was then enacted that hereafter there should be no more Associate Justices of the Supreme Court appointed, until they were reduced (by death or resignation), to six.
7. The circuits by this last act were reduced to nine, and were arranged as follows:
First and Second Circuits to remain as before.
The Third was made up of the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware.
The Fourth, of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina.
The Fifth, of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.
The Sixth, of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee.
The Seventh, of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin.
The Eighth, of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas.
The Ninth, of California, Oregon and Nevada.
We have inserted both of these circuit arrangements, because one new State (Nebraska), has been admitted since the act passed. Others will soon come in, and very probably the old number of circuits and judges will be restored.
CHAPTER LIX.
DISTRICT COURTS.
1. We come now to the lowest grade of United States courts, excepting the local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts. A United States District Court is held by a District Judge in every district. Every State constitutes at least one district, several of the larger States are divided into two, and some into three. There are at the present time fifty-nine Judicial Districts, and consequently the same number of District Judges, District Attorneys, District Clerks and Marshals. The Judges, Attorneys and Marshals are all appointed by the President and Senate; the Clerks by the respective courts.
TERMS.
2. By the law of 1789 every District Judge was required to hold four sessions a year, at such times and in such places as Congress directed. This is done to this day in a great majority of the States; but by later laws, in some of the districts only two or three sessions a year are required.
JURISDICTION.
3. These courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all admiralty and maritime causes. These relate to maritime contracts, and to crimes against the laws of the United States, committed on the sea and on navigable lakes and rivers. It embraces in this country all contracts respecting vessels and navigation; such as chartering, repairing, and fitting them out, seamen’s wages, &c. They have in some cases concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts, as in cases of piracy, and exclusive cognizance of cases where seizures are made for a violation of the revenue laws, or laws relating to imports and navigation; and causes against consuls and vice consuls where the amount claimed does not exceed $100. In short, they have concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts, of all crimes against the laws of the United States, the punishment of which is not capital. The trial of issues of fact in all causes except civil causes of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, must be by jury.
4. Appeals are taken from these courts to the Circuit Courts. The judges are appointed like those of the Supreme Court, for life, or during good behavior, and receive various amounts as salary, some more and some less, according to the amount of services to be performed in their respective districts.
5. When vessels are captured in time of war, either by the public armed vessels or by private armed ships, the facts and circumstances of the capture must be brought before a United States Circuit or District Court for adjudication; when the vessel and cargo are either condemned as a prize, or restored to their owners. When either of these courts adjudicate such cases, it is called a Prize Court.
We give the number of Judicial Districts in each State as they now exist, and the total number in all the States. They are as follows:
- Alabama, 3.
- Arkansas, 2.
- California, 2.
- Connecticut, 1.
- Mississippi, 2.
- Missouri, 2.
- Nevada, 1.
New Hampshire, 1. - Delaware, 1.
- Florida, 2.
- Georgia, 2.
- Illinois, 2.
- Indiana, 1.
- Iowa, 1.
- Kansas, 1.
- Kentucky, 1.
- Louisiana, 2.
- Maine, 1.
- Maryland, 1.
- Massachusetts, 1.
- Michigan, 2.
- Minnesota, 1.
- District of Columbia, 1.
- New Jersey, 1.
- New York, 3.
- North Carolina, 3.
- Nebraska, 1.
- Ohio, 2.
- Oregon, 1.
- Pennsylvania, 2.
- Rhode Island, 1.
- South Carolina, 2.
- Tennessee, 3.
- Texas, 2.
- Vermont, 1.
- Virginia, 1.
- West Virginia, 1.
- Wisconsin, 1.
- Total, 59.
CHAPTER LX.
ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION.
In ancient times—and long before this government existed—civilized and commercial nations had codes or laws which related especially to transactions upon the sea. Those respecting ships of war and warlike operations at sea were called the laws of Admiralty; those respecting vessels engaged in commercial affairs were called Maritime laws; and the courts empowered with jurisdiction to hear and try causes, or to take any judicial proceedings in those cases, were styled Courts of Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction. These laws, in many respects, differed so materially from the laws relating to affairs on land, that the authority and power to take proceedings in and adjudicate upon them was conferred upon a particular class of courts. Hence we see the origin of the names of such tribunals.
In this country the United States District Courts have been
KIND OF CASES.
The word Maritime designates that which relates to the sea. Yet, in the United States, cases which come within Admiralty and Maritime jurisdiction are not restricted to the sea, or to transactions relating to business or crimes done on it, but are made to embrace those which occur on navigable lakes and rivers, and include seizures made for the violation of the laws of impost, navigation, or trade, suits for the recovery of seamen’s wages, contracts for building, repairing or fitting out vessels, and, briefly, all contracts where the subject-matter relates to the navigation of the sea. The District Courts have Admiralty and Maritime jurisdiction in all these cases, without regard to the amount claimed, and in criminal as well as in civil suits.
The foregoing remarks show the workings of our judicial system, as it applies to business done, and crimes committed upon the high seas.
CHAPTER LXI.
COURT OF CLAIMS.
1. This court was established by act of Congress in 1855. The law reads thus: “A court shall be established to be called the Court of Claims, to consist of three judges, to be appointed by the President and Senate, and to hold their offices during good behavior; and the said court shall hear and determine all claims founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any regulation of an Executive department, or upon any contract express or implied, with the government of the United States; which may be suggested to it by a petition filed therein; and also all claims which may be referred to said court by either house of Congress.”
2. On the third of March, 1863, the jurisdiction of this court was enlarged, and two additional judges appointed (making five), from the whole number of which the President was authorized to appoint one a Chief Justice for said court.
3. The mode of commencing proceeding before this tribunal is by petition; in which the claimant must fully set forth his claim, how it arose, its amount, and the parties interested therein. After the case has been heard and determined, the court reports to Congress what its decision is, and if favorable to the claimant, a bill is passed for his relief.
4. It holds one session a year, in Washington, commencing on the first Monday in October, and continuing as long as the business before it requires. It not only tries claims against the government, but by its enlarged jurisdiction, conferred in 1863, it also tries counter claims and set-offs which the United States may have against the claimant. Appeals are taken from the Court of Claims to the Supreme Court of the United States, when the amount in controversy exceeds $3,000.
5. Before the establishment of this court, the only remedy persons having claims upon the government had, was by petitioning to Congress for relief; which experience proved to be a long, tedious, and expensive mode of obtaining their dues. The petition now goes to this court, where it is heard and adjudicated in the same form, and by the same rules of procedure which are observed in other courts; for Congress has conferred upon it all the powers commonly possessed by other courts of law. It also has a seal.
6. It has greatly facilitated the settlement of claims against the government, and has relieved Congress of a great amount of labor, which was urgently pressed upon it at every session.
7. In addition to the five judges, it has a Solicitor, an Assistant Solicitor, and a Deputy Solicitor, all of whom are appointed by the President and Senate; and are officers of the court, whose duty it is faithfully to defend the United States in all matters and claims before this court.
A bailiff, a clerk, a crier and messenger, all of whom are appointed by the court, make up the remaining officials.
The claimants stand in the relation of plaintiffs, and the government in that of defendant.
CHAPTER LXII.
DISTRICT ATTORNEYS.
These officers are next in rank to the Judges of the Circuit and District Courts with which their duties are connected. Their relation to the government, in the class of cases that come before those courts, is the same as that of the Attorney General in the Supreme Court. They are its official legal counselors in all cases involving the interests of the General Government before the Circuit and District Courts in their several districts. They are appointed in the same manner; that is, nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate. It is their duty “to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be concerned.” They are his clients, and he must enforce their rights, and defend them, in the same manner that any attorney protects and defends his client in any of the State courts. In case of necessity, he may appoint a substitute to act in his place. All fees over and above what he is allowed as compensation for his services, he must report and pay into the United States Treasury.
3. He must defend collectors of the customs and other revenue officers in his district, when suits are brought against them in their official capacity, and must report to the Solicitor of the Treasury the number of suits determined and pending in his district. And when prize cases have been determined, or are pending in the District Court of his district, he must report the state and condition of each case to the Secretary of the Navy.
District Attorneys are appointed for four years, but may be removed at the pleasure of the President. Their compensation depends on the amount of business to be done in their respective districts. When important ports of entry, such as New York or Boston, lie in their districts, their duties are very numerous, and they receive a corresponding compensation.
CHAPTER LXIII.
UNITED STATES MARSHALS.
1. United States Marshals are the ministerial officers of the United States courts. Their duties and responsibilities are very similar, and nearly identical with the duties and responsibilities of sheriffs in the courts of the several States. They are appointed by the President and Senate, for a term of four years. They appoint their own deputies, and their compensation consists of fees instead of a salary; and depends entirely upon the amount of business they have to transact. There is a Marshal in every Judicial District in the United States, and there are fifty-nine of these districts in all. Every State forms at least one district, while the larger States are divided into two or three.
2. A District Court is held in every district; and it is the Marshal’s duty to attend the sittings of these courts, and also those of the United States Circuit Courts, when they happen to sit in his district. The Marshal for the District of Columbia must also attend the sittings of the Supreme Court, and execute its precepts. We have said that they are the ministerial officers of the United States courts; for it is their duty to serve all writs and precepts emanating from them, whether of a civil or criminal character; and to execute the judgments and decrees of these tribunals; and for this purpose they are authorized by law, (if necessary,) to command such assistance as they may need in the execution of their duties. Before they enter upon the duties of their office, they must be bound
3. They also have the custody of all vessels and goods seized by any officer of the revenue. It is their duty also to summon, and to pay jurors and witnesses in behalf of any prisoner to be tried for a capital offense, under the laws of the United States. In the remarks made under the head “Census,” we stated that it was made the duty of the Marshals to superintend and direct the enumeration of the people; and to collect such statistical facts as the law requires. This they do through deputies, whom they appoint for that special purpose.
The United States Marshal is also required, on the first day of January and July of each year, to make a return of all the fees and emoluments of his office to the Secretary of the Interior; and if they amount to more than $6,000 per year, he must pay the surplus into the Treasury of the United States.
CHAPTER LXIV.
GRAND JURY.
1. By turning to the fifth article of the amendments to the Constitution, you will find these words: “No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury; except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger.” This constitutional provision makes a Grand Jury a very important agent or instrumentality in the execution of the laws, and also a safeguard of the liberties and rights of the people. It secures every person from the expense and disgrace of a trial for infamous crimes, unless a Grand Jury of his countrymen
2. This provision not only protects those who are charged with these crimes against the laws of the United States, but those also who may be charged with such offenses against the laws of any State; for no State can arrest and try any person for a capital or infamous crime without these preliminary proceedings of a Grand Jury; and should it do so, the United States Supreme Court would set its laws aside, as contrary to the Constitution of the United States. Here we see that the government is just as careful to protect its citizens from injustice by hasty judicial proceedings as it is to punish them after a fair and impartial trial.
3. A Grand Jury, when called to take cognizance of violations of the laws of the United States, to find indictments against those who are charged with them, is summoned by a judge of a United States court in the circuit or district where the alleged crime has been perpetrated; and it must take notice of all crimes against the laws of the United States, which may be brought to its knowledge, within the circuit or district in which it sits. Hence, if ordered by a Circuit Judge, its powers extend over all those States which lie in that circuit. But when ordered by a District Judge, its powers extend only to that district in which it sits, and a district never embraces more than one State, and in many cases a State is divided into two or three districts.
4. This shows us how much more extensive is the jurisdiction of a Grand Jury, when acting under the laws of the United States, than when acting under State laws. In the former it extends generally all over a State, and sometimes over several States. But in the latter it is confined to the county in which it sits.
GRAND AND PETIT JURIES.
A Grand Jury never acts but in criminal cases. A Petit Jury acts in both criminal and civil cases. The finding or
5. Second, a Grand Jury sits alone (not in the presence of the court), and deliberates upon such matters of a criminal character as it possesses knowledge of, or which may be brought to its notice by the court or by other persons; and when it finds that great evils exist, and wrongs have been perpetrated, it presents them to the court, and calls the attention of the law officers to them; which is equivalent to a recommendation that judicial proceedings should be commenced to abate the evil, or to punish the wrong-doer. This is called a presentment of the Grand Jury.
And when they find, upon such evidence as they have, that a great crime has been perpetrated, or that they have good reason so to believe, and that it has been perpetrated by some person specified, they report their finding or conclusion to the Court. This is called an indictment by the Grand Jury; after which the person so charged is arrested, if at large, and can be found, and is either imprisoned or held to bail for his appearance at court to stand trial.
6. A Grand Jury never tries a case. It only says to the court by its presentment or indictment, that the case presented, or the person indicted, ought to be brought before the court, and tried for the alleged wrong or crime.
A Petit Jury sits with the court, hears the pleadings and arguments of counsel on both sides, listens to the evidence of witnesses; and then hears the charge of the judge, as to the law applicable to the case; after which they withdraw and deliberate alone upon the case, and if they agree in a criminal case, their verdict is “Guilty,” or “Not Guilty;” if in a civil suit, they say how much one party is indebted (if any), to the other.
7. The object aimed at in that article of the Constitution which stands at the head of this chapter, is to protect persons from false charges of crime, and hasty adjudication of such
The above remarks are as applicable to Grand and Petit Juries, acting under State, as those which act under the United States laws.
CHAPTER LXV.
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS.
1. The Supreme power in the United States is lodged in the general government, with its three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The authority of this government, however, is restricted to the powers expressly conferred on it by the Constitution; all other power being reserved to the States, or the people. The States also are sovereign in their own limits, over all questions not expressly assigned to the General Government. Instead of conflict of authority there is true harmony. The people elect the members of both the classes of legislators and executives, and both are equally employed in attending to the interests of the people confided to their care; the first to General, the second to Local interests. All the members and officers of each are the servants of the Sovereign People.
2. As soon as the general government was organized under the Constitution, there arose two parties. One wished to render the General Government prominent in order to secure concentration of strength and vigor of action; the other desired to exalt the State governments in the fear that the general government might prove ambitious of too much power, and disregard the welfare of the people. As in almost all party platforms, both these seemed to take too narrow a view. Washington was held to sympathize more with the first, Jefferson
3. The Supreme Court, or the Judiciary, is the regulating, or reconciling element, which the Constitution set over the whole to see that no undue or improper action should defeat its purposes, and that no collisions of authority should occur. Its decision is final, it being the last resort in cases of appeal; and, as the only final and authoritative interpreter of Constitutional Law, it may revise the action of all other branches of both general and local government, and put them in harmony.
4. It is plain that the authors of the Constitution intended to fuse the separate elements, or States, into one whole, where general matters were concerned; and to leave those elements perfectly free and absolute control of all questions involving only their separate and local concerns. The People, and their welfare, are the aim and end of both organizations. The possession of power for ambitious ends by general, State, or municipal organizations, or by individuals, was apparently as foreign to the thought of the whole Constitutional convention of 1787 as it seems always to have been to the mind of Washington. That great man was the leader of clear-sighted and pure-minded statesmen, and whatever weaknesses and faults have existed at any time (and there have always been an abundance of them, as there were in the times of Washington) among political leaders, it must be allowed that the Fathers had worthy sons who knew how to work correctly the problems left them by their predecessors. A single question proved quite unmanageable to the sons, as it had before to the fathers, and had to be settled by an appeal to arms; but it demonstrated the strength of the people and the ability of our institutions to withstand the severest shocks.
5. The original States adopted the Constitution after deliberate
6. A State cannot make treaties with a foreign power, nor declare war against it. It cannot raise a revenue by duties on imports, nor control the postal service, or matters involving the interests of other States. It has therefore no Department for Foreign relations, its Secretary of State dealing only with State affairs. It has no Department of War, or Navy, and no Postmaster General. The Governor’s signature is necessary to the validity of laws passed by the two branches of the legislature, and in most of the States he has a veto power similar to that of the President. He has an executive council answering to the Cabinet. The courts are more numerous than those of the general government, to meet the wants of all classes of the people; ranging from a Supreme or Constitutional court, whose office it is to interpret and apply the constitution of the State; through all grades, of Common Pleas, Circuit, District, Police, and Recorder’s courts down to neighborhood courts held by Justices of the Peace, or Aldermen. There are various others in different States for special purposes.
7. States are subdivided for purposes of local government into counties and towns; and these into smaller portions for educational and other purposes.
Thus the whole is like an extensive system of machinery, wheel being fitted to wheel. From the lowest to the highest the people of each local division have entire control over the subjects in which they only are interested; and there is very little opportunity for the exercise of arbitrary power. Executive officers may be changed by election, or impeachment, if they do not give satisfaction, or prove unfaithful; and as many securities as it is possible to devise are provided against abuses, or, if a majority in any State (or the United States) believe that an improvement can be made, there are constitutional and legal methods for securing it.
Thus our country is insured against serious discontents for which no remedy is at hand; and from the revolutions and internal disturbances that interrupt the progress, and destroy the resources of so many other countries. It is a government of, for, and by the people. The value of any institution or office in the United States, from the school district and director to State legislature, Congress, governor, or President, is determined by the relation it bears to the Public Welfare; and when it ceases to be useful there are, as there ought to be, legal means for laying it aside.
CHAPTER LXVI.
INDIVIDUAL STATES.
The original thirteen States are here arranged in the order of size—the one having the largest area being placed first. They are ranked according to their present area, the claims of some of them at first extending to territory since erected into States; and one, Virginia, has been divided. Her former area would have ranked her as first.
The States that follow are placed in the order of their admission into the Union.
GEORGIA.
This State was the last settled of the original thirteen. It was founded in the benevolent anxiety of Gen. James Oglethorpe and others to relieve the distresses of the poor in England. Those imprisoned for debt were sent out in large numbers. With this object was connected the desire to prevent the extension of the Spanish settlements in Florida, and the English government favored the undertaking. This class of settlers proving indolent and improvident, a better was attracted by laying off many towns, in the best locations, and offering fifty acres free to every actual settler. Many Scotch and German emigrants improved this opportunity, to the great advantage of the colony.
Gen. Oglethorpe imitated the wise conduct of Penn, in his treaties with the Indians.
He commenced his settlement at Savannah, in 1733, cheerfully assisted by the South Carolinians, who were pleased to see a barrier placed between them and the Spaniards. Oglethorpe had several conflicts with them, and succeeded in protecting his colony. The introduction of slaves was at first forbidden; but, as the colony seemed to fall behind the neighboring provinces for want of laborers, the restriction was removed. In 1752 the company gave up their charter, and Georgia became a royal province. It took part with the other colonies in resistance to the aggressions of the English ministry, at the Revolutionary period, and its condition during the war was similar to that of North and South Carolina. Being new, and on the frontier, it was not conspicuous.
The northern part of the State is uneven, the central and
Georgia has an area of 52,009 square miles, equal to 33,285,760 acres. She was named after George II.
The population in 1870 was 1,200,000, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress.
The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and has two judicial districts; also four ports of entry—Savannah, Brunswick, St. Mary’s, and Hardwicke; and two ports of delivery—Augusta and Sunbury.
The capital is Atlanta. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in August. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January.
The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Georgia in General Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William Few, | from | 1789 | to | 1793. | |
| James Gunn, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1801. | |
| James Jackson, | ” | { | 1793 | ” | 1795. |
| 1801 | ” | 1806. | |||
| George Walton, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1796. | |
| Josiah Tatnall, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1799. | |
| A. Baldwin, | ” | { | 1796 | ” | 1805. |
| 1805 | ” | 1807. | |||
| J. Melledge, | ” | 1806 | ” | 1809. | |
| George Jones, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1807. | |
| W. H. Crawford, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1813. | |
| Charles Tait, | ” | { | 1809 | ” | 1813. |
| 1813 | ” | 1819. | |||
| W. B. Bullock, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1813. | |
| William W. Bibb, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1816. | |
| G. M. Troup, | ” | { | 1815 | ” | 1818. |
| 1829 | ” | 1833. | |||
| John Forsyth, | ” | { | 1819 | ” | 1819. |
| 1829 | ” | 1837. | |||
| F. Walker, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1821. | |
| John Elliot, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1821. | |
| Nicholas Ware, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1823. | |
| T. W. Cobb, | ” | 1824 | ” | 1828. | |
| O. H. Prince, | ” | 1828 | ” | 1829. | |
| John P. King, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1837. | |
| W. Lumpkin, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1841. | |
| J. M. Berrien, | ” | { | 1825 | ” | 1829. |
| 1841 | ” | 1851. | |||
| A. Cuthbert, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1843. | |
| W. T. Colquitt, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1849. | |
| H. V. Johnson, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1849. | |
| W. C. Dawson, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| Robert Toombs, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1861. | |
| R. M. Charleton, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1853. | |
| Alfred Iverson, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1861. | |
| Joshua Hill, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1873. | |
| Foster Blodgett, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1871. | |
| Thomas M. Norwood, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| John B. Gordon, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
NORTH CAROLINA.
A Florentine navigator, sent out by Francis I., King of France, first published an account of this region. He visited
Many French Huguenots, attracted by this freedom and the mild climate and extreme fertility of the soil, settled here and added greatly to the industrious and virtuous elements of the population. The revolutionary struggle was singularly bitter and bloody in this State and South Carolina, from the number and sanguinary character of the royalists and tories, and from the partisan or guerrilla mode of warfare adopted.
The majority were, however, determined and valiant patriots, and rendered it impossible for the British to establish a firm control over this part of the country.
The eastern surface is low, the western mountainous, and much of the midland is covered with pine forests which produce large quantities of turpentine. The soil is favorable to agriculture. Yams, rice, and cotton, in addition to the cereals, are raised with success. The fisheries in Albemarle Sound are an important source of wealth. A large number of minerals are found in the State. Like most of the Southern States, its resources have been but partially developed.
This is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 50,704 square miles, equal to 32,450,560 acres, with a population of 1,069,614 (one-third colored), and entitled to eight members of Congress. North Carolina, by act of 1866, was located in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and
Raleigh is the capital. There the Legislature meets biennially on the first Monday in November. The State election is held on the first Thursday in August.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of North Carolina, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Samuel Johnson, | from | 1789 | to | 1793. | |
| Benjamin Hawkins, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1795. | |
| Alexander Martin, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1799. | |
| Timothy Bloodworth, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| Jesse Franklin | ” | { | 1799 | ” | 1805. |
| 1807 | ” | 1813. | |||
| David Stone, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1813. | |
| James Turner, | ” | 1805 | ” | 1816. | |
| Nathaniel Macon, | ” | 1815 | ” | 1828. | |
| James Iredell, | ” | 1828 | ” | 1831. | |
| Montford Stokes, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1823. | |
| John Branch, | ” | 1823 | ” | 1829. | |
| Bedford Brown, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1840. | |
| Willie P. Mangum, | ” | { | 1840 | ” | 1853. |
| 1831 | ” | 1836. | |||
| Robert Strange, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1840. | |
| William A. Graham, | ” | 1840 | ” | 1843. | |
| William H. Haywood, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1846. | |
| George E. Badger, | ” | 1846 | ” | 1855. | |
| Asa Biggs, | ” | 1854 | ” | 1858. | |
| David S. Reed, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1859. | |
| ” | 1858 | ” | 1861. | ||
| Thomas Bragg, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1861. | |
| Joseph C. Abbott, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1871. | |
| John Pool, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| Zebulon B. Vance, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1873. | |
| Matthew W. Ransom, | ” | —— | ” | 1877. | |
| Augustus S. Merriman, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
NEW YORK.
The “Empire State” is very fortunately situated for the promotion of all the interests that form the basis of prosperity of a Nation. It contains the commercial metropolis of the country, which is connected, by its great navigable river, the Hudson, and the Erie canal, with the fertile interior and the commerce of the chain of great lakes in the west; while Lakes Ontario and Champlain furnish the means of profitable trade with Canada on the north. As its natural commercial facilities are unrivaled, so also, every auxiliary that can be furnished by art is employed to develop its resources and to attract trade and manufactures.
Its river was discovered by the celebrated navigator, Captain Henry Hudson, in 1609, and he gave it his name. He was employed, at this time by the Dutch, who claimed and settled the territory in the following year. They established posts on Manhattan Island, where New York now stands, and at Albany—calling the country in general, New Netherlands. They held it until 1644; laying claim, also, to Connecticut and New Jersey. Their rule was despotic, and when the Duke of York, afterward James II., King of England, sent a squadron to enforce English claims to it, the inhabitants declined to resist, and it became an English colony without a struggle. The city
New York is the largest and richest city in the Union. The State abounds in salt and mineral springs, and its central and western parts are unexcelled for agriculture; while the eastern, more mountainous, but nearer to markets, and more abundant in water power, is equally favorable to grazing and manufactures.
Its area is 47,000 square miles, equal to 30,080,000 acres. The population in 1870 was larger than that of any other State, being officially stated at 4,364,411. It has thirty-three Members of Congress.
It forms part of the second judicial circuit, and has three judicial districts; eleven ports of entry, and fourteen ports of delivery, with the privilege of eight or nine others if the President of the United States deems them necessary.
The Capital is Albany. The State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the first Tuesday in January in each year. The style of the enacting clause is: “Be it enacted by the people of the State of New York represented in Senate and Assembly.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Philip Schuyler, | from | 1789 | to | 1791. | |
| Rufus King, | ” | { | 1789 | ” | 1796. |
| 1813 | ” | 1825. | |||
| ” | 1791 | ” | 1797. | ||
| John Lawrence, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1800. | |
| John S. Hobart, | ” | 1798 | ” | 1798. | |
| William North, | ” | 1798 | ” | 1798. | |
| James Watson, | ” | 1798 | Resigned. | ||
| Governeur Morris, | ” | 1800 | ” | 1803. | |
| John Armstrong, | ” | { | 1800 | ” | 1802. |
| 1803 | ” | 1804. | |||
| DeWitt Clinton, | ” | 1802 | ” | 1803. | |
| Theodore Bailey, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1804. | |
| Samuel L. Mitchell, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1809. | |
| John Smith, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1813. | |
| Obadiah German, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1815. | |
| Nathan Sanford, | ” | { | 1815 | ” | 1821. |
| 1825 | ” | 1831. | |||
| Martin Van Buren, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1829. | |
| Charles Dudley, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1833. | |
| William L. Marcy, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1833. | |
| Nath’l P. Tallmadge, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1844. | |
| Silas Wright, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1844. | |
| Daniel S. Dickinson, | ” | 1844 | ” | 1851. | |
| Henry A. Foster, | ” | 1844 | ” | 1845. | |
| John A. Dix, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1849. | |
| William H. Seward, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1861. | |
| Hamilton Fish, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| Preston King, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1863. | |
| Ira Harris, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1867. | |
| Edwin D. Morgan, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1869. | |
| Roscoe Conkling, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1879. | |
| Reuben E. Fenton, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Francis Kernan, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. | |
PENNSYLVANIA.
“The Keystone State” has been eminently fortunate in three various ways. Its founder, William Penn, happily united benevolence and high political wisdom, with a thrifty and prudent economy, and possessed sufficient influence and tact to infuse his colony with his own qualities to a large degree, and the advantages acquired in the beginning, have shed their favoring influence on all its future, to the present time.
Penn, as proprietor of his province, had almost kingly power; yet, as a law-giver, he acknowledged the liberties of the people, and accustomed them to many of the forms of self-government afterward incorporated into the Constitution of the United States. His just and conciliatory conduct toward the Indians, and the exemption of Pennsylvania from barbarous Indian wars, in consequence, proves the utility of the practice of unvarying justice and kindness toward them; and stands in strong and significant contrast with the opposite course, so often pursued, and with results so distressing.
A colony was established by Penn in the southeastern part of the State, in the year 1682. The government was conducted by a governor, a council of three, and a House of Delegates, chosen by the people. The largest religious liberty was allowed, and punishment of crime was mitigated from the severity, customary in those times, to something like the mildness now practiced among us.
The colony enjoyed seventy years of enlightened government, and prospered greatly. A large immigration of hardy and thrifty Germans and Swedes spread over the State and supplied,
The second eminent advantage of the State, was in its central position, the facilities furnished to commerce and trade by the Delaware river on its eastern boundary, and the Ohio, on the west, connecting it with the valley of the Mississippi.
The third superiority, later in development in some of its features, relates to its wealth of resources. Lying midway between north and south, its climate is temperate and mild. Its soil on the eastern border and along the valleys of its numerous rivers is of great fertility; while its inexhaustible coal deposits are far more valuable in promoting the steady growth of her citizens in wealth than mines of gold. Iron, copper, zinc, marble and slate are, apparently, inexhaustible. Her railroads and canals furnish a suitable means for the development of these resources, and the transportation for all her valuable commodities to profitable markets, and prove her later citizens to have inherited the economic wisdom and thrift of the founder of their State.
Pennsylvania valiantly bore the share in the struggles and sacrifices of the Revolution to which her position, her wealth and numbers, called her. Philadelphia—“The City of Brotherly Love” (the name means this,) was the first capital of the Republic. It was there that the Declaration of Independence was originated and signed.
Its area is 46,000 square miles, equal to 29,440,000 acres. The population in 1870 was 3,515,993, entitling her to twenty-seven Representatives in Congress.
It is in the third judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts. There are two ports of entry, and two collection districts. Harrisburg is the capital; the Legislature assembling on the first Tuesday in January, the State elections being held the second Tuesday in October.
The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William Maclay, | from | 1789 | to | 1791. | |
| Robert Morris, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1795. | |
| Albert Gallatin, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1794. | |
| James Ross, | ” | 1794 | ” | 1803. | |
| William Bingham, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| Peter Muhlenburgh, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1802. | |
| Samuel Maclay, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1808. | |
| Michael Leib, | ” | 1808 | ” | 1814. | |
| Andrew Gregg, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1813. | |
| Abner Lacock, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1819. | |
| Jonathan Roberts, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1821. | |
| Walter Lawrie, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1825. | |
| William Findlay, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1827. | |
| William Marks, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1831. | |
| Isaac D. Barnard, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1831. | |
| George M. Dallas, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1833. | |
| William Wilkins, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1834. | |
| Samuel McKean, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1839. | |
| James Buchanan, | ” | 1834 | ” | 1845. | |
| Daniel Sturgeon, | ” | { | 1839 | ” | 1851. |
| 1845 | ” | 1849. | |||
| Simon Cameron, | ” | { | 1857 | ” | 1861. |
| 1867 | ” | 1873. | |||
| James Cooper, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| Charles E. Buckalew, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1869. | |
| Richard Broadhead, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| William Bigler, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1861. | |
| Edgar Cowan, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1867. | |
| David Wilmot, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1863. | |
| John Scott, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Simon Cameron, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| Wm. A. Wallace, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
VIRGINIA.
“The Old Dominion,” as this State has been called, in familiar style, has certain high claims to such a distinctive appellation. It was the colony in which the first permanent settlement was made, and for fourteen years before the perils of the wilderness were encountered by the Puritan Fathers of New England, it confronted famine and Indian hostility. Its people were quite different in character from those of most of the other colonies. While many were from the lowest classes, a goodly number of the gentry and nobility of England were transplanted to this colony. Some were men of wealth, character and influence; and the hereditary value of that element became conspicuous when revolutionary times came, and the colonial government, which had been from the first, kept closely dependent on the royal will, being set aside, permitted to this class a free field of action. None were more eloquent, more zealous, more valiant or wise, during the “time that tried men’s souls.” The talents, patriotism, and wisdom of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and many others almost equally useful, attest the quality of the Virginian stock of patriots, and shed honor on their native State.
It was settled in 1607, at Jamestown. The infant colony was long exposed to danger of destruction by Indian hostility; but, favored by circumstances, grew up to strength, and became a protection to others. An almost constant struggle was maintained with the royal governors, who were disposed to encroach on their liberties. Notwithstanding the number of decayed and worthless gentlemen, and the dregs of the English populace, who entered as components into her population, as a
This State is much varied in surface. In the southeast it is low and level; in the west and northwest mountainous, with numerous large streams and fertile vallies, and a charming climate. Its mineral wealth of coal, iron and salt is very great; its water power for manufacturing purposes unsurpassed; and its commercial position everything to be desired. None of these advantages have been more than partially improved; and the future of the State is destined to be exceedingly brilliant. Old and nourishing colleges testify to the interest taken in education; and railroads and other means of internal development have already prepared the way for its greatness. She exports tobacco, flour, oysters, and cotton, and her agricultural wealth is constantly improving.
Virginia is also one of the original thirteen States, and had an area previous to the division in 1862, of 61,352 square miles, equal to 39,265,280 acres; but after West Virginia was set off as a separate State, there were but 38,352 square miles left of this once great State, equal to 24,545,280 acres.
The population in 1860 amounted to 1,596,318, which entitles the State to nine Members of Congress. By the division the number of Representatives was cut down to nine; the new State receiving three out of the twelve. Population in 1870, 1,224,830.
Virginia lies in the fourth judicial circuit, which by the act of 1866, was composed of this State, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina and South Carolina. There were two judicial districts in this State, anterior to the division; the Eastern and the Western. There is now but one.
There were also twelve collection districts in this State, and twelve ports of entry, all of which remain the same as they were before West Virginia was cut off, for they were all located on the Atlantic coast, or on the bays and rivers running into the Atlantic Ocean; there are also ten ports of delivery.
Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on the
The enacting clause of the laws of Virginia is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William Grayson, | from | 1789 | to | 1790. | |
| Richard H. Lee, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1792. | |
| John Walker, | ” | 1790 | ” | 1790. | |
| James Monroe, | ” | { | 1790 | ” | 1794. |
| 1792 | ” | 1794. | |||
| John Taylor, | ” | { | 1803 | ” | 1805. |
| 1822 | ” | 1824. | |||
| Stephen T. Mason, | ” | 1794 | ” | 1803. | |
| John Tazewell, | ” | 1794 | ” | 1799. | |
| Wilson C. Nichols, | ” | 1799 | ” | 1804. | |
| Abraham B. Venable, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1804. | |
| William B. Giles, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1815. | |
| Andrew Moore, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1809. | |
| Richard Brent, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1815. | |
| James Barbour, | ” | 1815 | ” | 1825. | |
| Armistead T. Mason, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1817. | |
| John W. Eppes, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1819. | |
| James Pleasant, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1822. | |
| John Randolph, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1827. | |
| Littleton W. Tazewell, | ” | 1824 | ” | 1832. | |
| John Tyler, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1836. | |
| William C. Rives, | ” | { | 1832 | ” | 1834. |
| 1836 | ” | 1845. | |||
| Benjamin W. Leigh, | ” | 1834 | ” | 1836. | |
| Richard E. Parker, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1837. | |
| William H. Roane, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1841. | |
| William S. Archer, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| Isaac S. Pennybacker, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1847. | |
| James M. Mason, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1861. | |
| R. M. T. Hunter, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1861. | |
| John W. Johnston, | ” | 1870 | ” | 1877. | |
| John F. Lewis, | ” | 1870 | ” | 1875. | |
| Robert E. Withers, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
SOUTH CAROLINA.
The first permanent settlement in this State was made in 1670, at Port Royal, where the French Huguenots had failed three-quarters of a century before. The noble company who had received a charter for the settlement and government of the Carolinas employed the celebrated philosopher, John Locke, to draw up a philosophical plan of government, which they attempted to carry into effect to the great annoyance of the colonists. It proved impracticable, and was finally abandoned.
The French introduced the culture of the vine with success, and rice was brought at an early day from Madagascar, the cultivation of which became extensive.
Many vexations were endured by the colonists by the injudicious management of the proprietary government, and at length they, by petition, obtained a revocation of the charter, receiving, in 1720, a governor appointed by the crown. They endured for many years all the horrors of warfare with the Tuscarora Indians, whom they finally defeated and expelled. Rutledge, Sumpter, and Marion were distinguished leaders of the patriots during the occupation of the State by the British forces; employing with success a partisan warfare, and defying the efforts of a superior British force to hold the State in subjection.
The climate has been likened to that of Italy, and the products of the north and of the tropics are equally cultivated. The State abounds in agricultural and manufacturing resources, and has a fine commercial position.
South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States, and
By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the fourth judicial circuit; it is divided into two judicial districts, called the Eastern and Western.
There are three collection districts in this State, and four ports of entry, to-wit: Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort and Port Royal; but no ports of delivery.
The capital is Columbia. The State elections are held on the fourth Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third Wednesday in October.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, now met and sitting in General Assembly, and by authority of the same.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Pierce Butler, | from | { | 1790 | to | 1796. |
| 1802 | ” | 1804. | |||
| Ralph Izard, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1795. | |
| Jacob Read, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| John Hunter, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1798. | |
| Charles Pinckney, | ” | 1798 | ” | 1801. | |
| Thomas Sumpter, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1810. | |
| John E. Calhoun, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1802. | |
| John Gaillard, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1826. | |
| John Taylor, | ” | 1810 | ” | 1816. | |
| William Smith, | ” | { | 1816 | ” | 1823. |
| 1826 | ” | 1831. | |||
| William Harper, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1826. | |
| Robert J. Hane, | ” | 1823 | ” | 1832. | |
| Stephen D. Miller, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1833. | |
| John C. Calhoun, | ” | { | 1832 | ” | 1842. |
| 1845 | ” | 1850. | |||
| William C. Preston, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1842. | |
| ” | 1842 | ” | 1845. | ||
| George McDuffie, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1846. | |
| Andrew P. Butler, | ” | 1846 | ” | 1857. | |
| Franklin H. Elmore, | ” | 1850 | ” | 1850. | |
| Robert W. Barnwell, | ” | 1850 | ” | 1852. | |
| William Desaussure, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1852. | |
| Josiah Evans, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1858. | |
| James H. Hammond, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1860. | |
| James Chestnut, | ” | 1858 | ” | 1861. | |
| Arthur P. Hayne, | ” | 1858. | |||
| Thomas J. Robertson, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1877. | |
| Frederick A. Sawyer, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| John J. Patterson, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
This territory at first was included in the patent to the Virginia colony; but was, in 1632, re-patented to Lord Baltimore, an English nobleman, who had embraced the catholic faith, and sought, in the American wilderness, an asylum where he and his co-religionists might enjoy the freedom from persecution denied them in England. It was called Maryland from the queen of Charles I., King of England. A part of this patent was covered by that subsequently made to William Penn, and produced much trouble between the descendants of these men, and their respective colonies. A settlement was commenced, mainly by catholic gentlemen, in 1634, and called St. Mary’s, on a branch of the Potomac.
The wise liberality that distinguished the settlement of Pennsylvania marked all the earlier history of Maryland. They cultivated friendly relations with the natives and with their neighbors. Lord Baltimore was liberal in his expenditures for
This State was one of the original thirteen, and gave a hearty support to the patriot side during the war for freedom.
The surface of the country is, in great part, low and sandy; the climate agreeable and the soil favorable to agricultural pursuits. Her commercial position is excellent, being situated on either side of Chesapeake bay and bounded by the Potomac river on the west. The District of Columbia, containing the National Capital, was located on the last named river within her limits.
Maryland has an area of 11,124 square miles—equal to 7,119,360 acres. The population in 1870 was 780,806, which gives her six Representatives in Congress. By an act of Congress, passed in 1866, this State was put in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina. Maryland constitutes one judicial district; has ten ports of entry, viz.: Baltimore, Chester, Oxford, Vienna, Snow-Hill, Annapolis, Nottingham, St. Mary’s, Georgetown, and Havre de Grace; and twelve ports of delivery.
Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Charles Carroll, (of Carrollton) | from | 1789 | to | 1793. | |
| John Henry, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1797. | |
| Richard Potts, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1796. | |
| ” | 1796 | ” | 1803. | ||
| James Lloyd, | ” | 1797 | ” | 1800. | |
| William Hindman, | ” | 1800 | ” | 1801. | |
| Robert Wright, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1806. | |
| Samuel Smith, | ” | { | 1803 | ” | 1815. |
| 1822 | ” | 1833. | |||
| Philip Reed, | ” | 1806 | ” | 1813. | |
| R. H. Goldsborough, | ” | { | 1813 | ” | 1819. |
| 1835 | ” | 1836. | |||
| Robert G. Harper, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1816. | |
| Alexander C. Hanson, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1819. | |
| William Pinckney, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1822. | |
| Edward Lloyd, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1826. | |
| Ezekiel F. Chambers, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1835. | |
| Joseph Kent, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1838. | |
| John S. Spence, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1841. | |
| William D. Merrick, | ” | 1838 | ” | 1845. | |
| John Leidsker, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1843. | |
| James A. Pearce, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1862. | |
| Reverdy Johnson, | ” | { | 1845 | ” | 1851. |
| 1863 | ” | 1868. | |||
| David Stuart, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1850. | |
| Thomas G. Pratt, | ” | 1850 | ” | 1857. | |
| Anthony Kennedy, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1863. | |
| Thomas H. Hicks, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1864. | |
| John A. J. Cresswell, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1867. | |
| Philip F. Thomas, | ” | —— | ” | 1867. | |
| George Vickers, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| William T. Hamilton, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| George R. Dennis, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| Wm. Pinckney Wythe, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
This State is often called “The Old Granite State,” as well from its mountainous character as the resolute spirit of its inhabitants. It is small, having an area of only 9,280 square miles, which make 5,939,200 acres. Its population in 1870 was 318,300, entitling it to three Representatives in Congress.
The first settlement was founded at Dover, in 1624, by the English. It suffered much from Indian wars, and its growth was slow. It was made a separate province in 1680, having previously been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. It was one of the original thirteen States, and took an active and vigorous part in the Revolutionary War.
Its soil is light and unfavorable to agriculture, but furnishes good pasturage and produces fine cattle. It contains the White Mountains, the highest in New England. Its streams are utilized for manufacturing purposes. Quarries of marble and granite abound. Minerals, and precious stones of several varieties are found in various parts of the State. The hardy and enterprising sons to whom it has given birth are to be found in every State in the Union.
It lies in the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial district; and is embraced in one collection district, and therefore has but one port of entry. There are three ports of delivery.
The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles on the first Monday in June, the State election being held the second Tuesday in March.
The enacting clause of the laws runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Paine Wingate, | from | 1789 | to | 1793. | |
| John Langdon, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1801. | |
| Samuel Livermore, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1801. | |
| Simeon Olcott, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1805. | |
| James Sheafe, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1802. | |
| William Plummer, | ” | 1802 | ” | 1807. | |
| Nicholas Gilman, | ” | 1805 | ” | 1814. | |
| Nahum Parker, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1810. | |
| Charles Cutts, | ” | 1810 | ” | 1813. | |
| Jeremiah Mason, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1817. | |
| Thomas W. Thompson, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1817. | |
| David L. Morrill, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1823. | |
| Clement Storer, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1819. | |
| John F. Parrott, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1825. | |
| Samuel Bell, | ” | 1823 | ” | 1835. | |
| Levi Woodbury, | ” | { | 1825 | ” | 1831. |
| 1841 | ” | 1845. | |||
| Isaac Hill, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1835. | |
| Henry Hubbard, | ” | 1835 | ” | 1841. | |
| John Page, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1837. | |
| Franklin Pierce, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1842. | |
| Leonard Wilcox, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1842. | |
| Charles G. Atherson, | ” | { | 1843 | ” | 1849. |
| 1852 | ” | 1853. | |||
| Benning W. Jenness, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1846. | |
| Joseph Cilley, | ” | 1846 | ” | 1847. | |
| John P. Hale, | ” | { | 1847 | ” | 1853. |
| 1855 | ” | 1865. | |||
| Moses Norris, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| Jared W. Williams, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1854. | |
| John S. Wells, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1855. | |
| James Bell, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1857. | |
| Daniel Clark, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1866. | |
| George C. Fogg, | ” | 1866 | ” | 1867. | |
| James W. Paterson, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1873. | |
| Aaron H. Cragin, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1877. | |
| Bainbridge Wadleigh, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
NEW JERSEY.
This State was first settled at Bergen by the Swedes sent over by the Christian hero-king, Gustavus Adolphus, in the year 1638. They, however, soon fell under the control of the Dutch, who claimed the territory. The next settlement was made at Elizabethtown, from Long Island, in 1664. New Jersey came into the hands of the English along with New Netherlands, but soon became an independent province; Philip Carteret becoming its first governor, in 1665. It was for some time under the control of the celebrated Quaker, William Penn, received a liberal form of government, and, not suffering from the Indians enjoyed prosperity for many years. Afterwards it passed through various vicissitudes in its government, was for a time joined to New York, but recovered its independent existence in 1738; and was one of the original thirteen States, taking a very prominent part in the Revolution. Its territory, lying between New York and Philadelphia, was the field on which the hostile armies fought and manouvered, for some years. It ratified the Constitution unanimously, December 18th, 1787. It has been rewarded for its patriotism and devotion to liberty by unbroken prosperity. Its manufactures are in a flourishing state. Its vicinity to the great commercial centres of the Atlantic coast; the mildness of its climate, and the adaptation of its soil to the growth of fruit and vegetables have made it the Garden State of the Union. Its agricultural wealth is much increased by its abundant beds of marl and peat. The extreme north is hilly and the extreme south low and sandy. Education receives much attention.
It has an area of 8,320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres.
This State lies in the third judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are six ports of entry, and as many collection districts; and also eight ports of delivery.
Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature assembles the second Tuesday in January.
The form of the enacting clause is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Jonathan Elmer, | from | 1789 | to | 1791. | |
| William Patterson, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1790. | |
| Philemon Dickerson, | ” | 1790 | ” | 1793. | |
| John Rutherford, | ” | 1791 | ” | 1798. | |
| Fred’k Frelinghuysen, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1796. | |
| Richard Stockton, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1799. | |
| Franklin Davenport, | ” | 1798 | ” | 1799. | |
| James Schureman, | ” | 1799 | ” | 1801. | |
| Jonathan Dayton, | ” | 1799 | ” | 1805. | |
| Aaron Ogden, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1803. | |
| John Condit, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1811. | |
| Aaron Kitchell, | ” | 1805 | ” | 1809. | |
| John Lambert, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1815. | |
| Mahlon Dickerson, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1833. | |
| James J. Wilson, | ” | 1815 | ” | 1821. | |
| Samuel L. Southard, | ” | { | 1821 | ” | 1823. |
| 1833 | ” | 1841. | |||
| Joseph McIlvaine, | ” | 1823 | ” | 1826. | |
| Thos. Frelinghuysen, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1835. | |
| Ephraim Bateman, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1829. | |
| Garret D. Wall, | ” | 1835 | ” | 1841. | |
| Jacob Miller, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1853. | |
| William L. Dayton, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1851. | |
| ” | 1853 | ” | 1863. | ||
| William Pennington, | ” | 1858 | ” | 1858. | |
| William Wright, | ” | { | 1853 | ” | 1859. |
| 1863 | ” | 1866. | |||
| Robert F. Stockton, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1853. | |
| John C. Ten Eyck, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1865. | |
| Richard S. Field, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1863. | |
| James W. Wall, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1863. | |
| John P. Stockton, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1866. | |
| F. T. Frelinghuysen, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1869. | |
| Alexander G. Cattell, | ” | 1866 | ” | 1871. | |
| John P. Stockton, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| F. T. Frelinghuysen, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Thos. F. Randolph, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
MASSACHUSETTS.
The “Bay State,” so named from the deep encroachments of the sea on her eastern border, was settled in 1620, at Plymouth, by English Puritans; a class of sternly pious men, who abandoned England to find freedom of worship in the savage wilds of America. They were men of great resolution and intelligence, and succeeded in imbuing the new colony with a fair degree of their own virtue. They suffered much, at first, from deprivation of the comforts they had left in England, and from the hostility of the Indians. They were too much in earnest to be tolerant, and persecutions of pretended witches, of Quakers and Baptists, have given them an unenviable notoriety.
This State was a leading one among the original thirteen, and the first to take up arms and to be invaded by the British forces at the commencement of the War of the Revolution. Her influence on the national character has been great.
This State is the first in the Union for cotton and woolen manufactures, its cotton mills alone employing about twenty-five thousand hands. In extent of all its manufactures it is third in the Union. The soil is sterile in great part, but the energy of the people finds abundant other sources of wealth. Commerce and fisheries receive much attention, and produce much wealth.
Education is carefully attended to, and its public school system a model for other States. She has an area of 7,800 square miles. Her population in 1870 was 1,457,351, and entitles her to eleven Members of Congress. It is in the first judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are fourteen ports of entry, and twenty-five ports of delivery in this State.
Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an important center of intellectual and business energy. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January, and the State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.
The enacting clause is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Tristram Dalton, | from | 1789 | to | 1791. | |
| Caleb Strong, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1796. | |
| George Cabot, | ” | 1791 | ” | 1796. | |
| Theo. Sedgewick, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1799. | |
| Benj. Goodhue, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1800. | |
| Samuel Dexter, | ” | 1799 | ” | 1800. | |
| Dwight Foster, | ” | 1800 | ” | 1803. | |
| Jonathan Mason, | ” | 1800 | ” | 1803. | |
| John Q. Adams, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1808. | |
| Timothy Pickering, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1811. | |
| James Lloyd, | ” | { | 1808 | ” | 1813. |
| 1822 | ” | 1826. | |||
| Joseph B. Varnum, | ” | 1811 | ” | 1817. | |
| ” | 1813 | ” | 1816. | ||
| Eli P. Ashmun, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1818. | |
| Harrison Gray Otis, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1822. | |
| Prentiss Mellen, | ” | 1818 | ” | 1820. | |
| Elijah H. Mills, | ” | 1820 | ” | 1827. | |
| Nathaniel Silsbee, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1835. | |
| Daniel Webster, | ” | { | 1827 | ” | 1841. |
| 1845 | ” | 1850. | |||
| Rufus Choate, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1845. | |
| John Davis, | ” | { | 1835 | ” | 1841. |
| 1845 | ” | 1853. | |||
| Isaac C. Bates, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1845. | |
| Robert C. Winthrop, | ” | 1850 | ” | 1851. | |
| Robert Rantoul, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1851. | |
| Edward Everett, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1854. | |
| Julius Rockwell, | ” | 1854 | ” | 1855. | |
| ” | 1855 | ” | 1873. | ||
| Charles Sumner, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1874. | |
| George S. Boutwell, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1877. | |
| William Washburn, | ” | 1874 | ” | 1875. | |
| Henry L. Dawes, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
CONNECTICUT.
This State takes its name from its principal river, which, entering from the north, runs through the State nearly in the center. It was settled in 1633 from Massachusetts, the fertility of the valley of the Connecticut attracting them to brave the perils of conflict with the Indians, and with the Dutch, settled where New York now stands, who laid claim to it. The Dutch withdrew, the Indians were subdued in many bloody
A decisive battle in 1636, on the Mystic river, annihilated the Pequod Indians.
Connecticut, in 1700, followed the example set by Massachusetts in 1638, by founding Yale college, which, to this day, very fairly rivals Harvard in the former State. Both have contributed largely to the intelligence and culture of the American people. It took a leading part in the Revolution; ratified the constitution June 9th, 1788; and has displayed the zeal in promoting the public good that has been so prominent in the cultivation of her educational and material interests.
The surface of the State is uneven and rocky. Manufactures and commerce are the leading interests, although agriculture is not neglected. It is rich in minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron, copper and bismuth are found, while marble, of fine quality, and granite abound.
Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 2,991,360 acres. It has four representatives in Congress. The population in 1870 was 537,418. It is part of the second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. She has five ports of entry, and five collection districts, with twenty-two ports of delivery.
It has had two capitals ever since the first two colonies, established at Hartford and New Haven, were united; and holds her State election on the first Monday in April. The Legislature meets the first Wednesday in May.
The enacting clause runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Oliver Ellsworth, | from | 1789 | to | 1796. | |
| William S. Johnson, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1791. | |
| ” | 1791 | ” | 1793. | ||
| S. M. Mitchell, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1795. | |
| Jonathan Trumbull, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1796. | |
| Uriah Tracey, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1807. | |
| J. Hillhouse, | ” | 1796 | ” | 1810. | |
| C. Goodrich, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1813. | |
| S. W. Dana, | ” | 1810 | ” | 1821. | |
| David Doggett, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1819. | |
| James Lanman, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1825. | |
| E. Boardman, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1823. | |
| H. W. Edwards, | ” | 1823 | ” | 1827. | |
| Calvin Willey, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1831. | |
| Samuel A. Foot, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1833. | |
| G. Tomlinson, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1837. | |
| Nathan Smith, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1835. | |
| John M. Niles, | ” | { | 1835 | ” | 1839. |
| 1843 | ” | 1849. | |||
| Perry Smith, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1843. | |
| Thaddeus Betts, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1840. | |
| J. W. Huntington, | ” | 1840 | ” | 1847. | |
| R. S. Baldwin, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1851. | |
| Truman Smith, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| Isaac Toucey, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1857. | |
| Francis Gillette, | ” | 1854 | ” | 1856. | |
| L. S. Foster, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1867. | |
| James Dixon, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1869. | |
| Orris S. Ferry, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1879. | |
| W. A. Buckingham, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Wm. W. Eaton, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
DELAWARE.
The first settlement of Delaware was made by the Swedes,
The surface of the State is level, or gently undulating, the climate is agreeable, except that, in winter, the sea breeze is somewhat harsh; the soil is sandy but fertile. Grain and fruit are raised, peaches being produced in great profusion. Her commercial and manufacturing business is limited, and she is destitute of mineral wealth.
It is next to Rhode Island in size, containing the small area of 2,120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres. Population 125,015.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| George Read, | from | 1789 | to | 1793. | |
| R. Bassett, | ” | 1789 | ” | 1793. | |
| John Vining, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1798. | |
| Kensey Johns, | ” | 1794 | ” | 1795. | |
| Henry Latimer, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| Joshua Clayton, | ” | 1798 | ” | 1799. | |
| W. H. Wells, | ” | { | 1799 | ” | 1804. |
| 1813 | ” | 1817. | |||
| Samuel White, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1810. | |
| J. A. Bayard, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1813. | |
| O. Horsey, | ” | 1810 | ” | 1821. | |
| ” | 1817 | ” | 1826. | ||
| C. A. Rodney, | ” | 1822 | ” | 1823. | |
| T. Clayton, | ” | { | 1824 | ” | 1827. |
| 1837 | ” | 1847. | |||
| D. Rodney, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1827. | |
| H. Ridgely, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1829. | |
| L. McLane, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1829. | |
| J. M. Clayton, | ” | { | 1829 | ” | 1837. |
| 1845 | ” | 1849. | |||
| A. Naudain, | ” | 1830 | ” | 1836. | |
| R. H. Bayard, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1845. | |
| P. Spruance, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| John Wales, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1851. | |
| J. A. Bayard, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1864. | |
| M. W. Bates, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1859. | |
| J. P. Comeygs, | ” | 1856 | ” | 1857. | |
| W. Saulsbury, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1871. | |
| G. R. Riddle, | ” | 1864 | ” | 1867. | |
| J. A. Bayard, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1869. | |
| Thomas F. Bayard, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1881. | |
| Eli Saulsbury, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. |
RHODE ISLAND.
This is the smallest of the States, having an area of but 1,306 square miles, or 835,840 acres.
It was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams, and became an avowed place of refuge for persecuted christians of all names, but especially for Baptists, among whom Mr. Williams was a leader. It was chartered as a separate colony in 1644, and the excellent constitution framed under it lasted until 1818. It
Its citizens are mainly engaged in the manufacturing and commercial pursuits for which their excellent harbors and streams furnish eminent facilities. It has always been prosperous, its people being distinguished for industry and activity. Its population was, in 1870, 217,356.
Rhode Island forms part of the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial district; and has three ports of entry, and seven of delivery. It has two capitals, having been originally formed of two separate colonies. These are Providence and Newport. The election for State officers is held on the first Wednesday in April. The Legislature is held twice in the year, in May and January. The style of her enacting clause is: “It is enacted by the General Assembly, as follows.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Theodore Foster, | from | 1790 | to | 1803. | |
| Joseph Stanton, | ” | 1790 | ” | 1793. | |
| William Bradford, | ” | 1793 | ” | 1797. | |
| Ray Green, | ” | 1797 | ” | 1801. | |
| Charles Ellery, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1805. | |
| Samuel L. Potter, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1804. | |
| Benjamin Howland, | ” | 1804 | ” | 1809. | |
| James Fenner, | ” | 1805 | ” | 1807. | |
| Elisha Matthewson, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1811. | |
| Francis Malbone, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1809. | |
| C. G. Champlin, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1811. | |
| Jeremiah B. Howell, | ” | 1811 | ” | 1817. | |
| William Hunter, | ” | 1811 | ” | 1831. | |
| James Burrill, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1821. | |
| James D’Wolf, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1825. | |
| Nehemiah R. Knight, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1841. | |
| Asher Robbins, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1839. | |
| ” | 1839 | ” | 1842. | ||
| James F. Simmons, | ” | { | 1841 | ” | 1847. |
| 1857 | ” | 1862. | |||
| William Sprague, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1844. | |
| John B. Francis, | ” | 1844 | ” | 1845. | |
| Albert C. Green, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1851. | |
| John H. Clarke, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| Charles T. James, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| Philip Allen, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1859. | |
| Samuel G. Arnold, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1863. | |
| Henry B. Anthony, | ” | { | 1859 | ” | 1865. |
| 1865 | ” | 1877. | |||
| William Sprague, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1875. | |
| Ambrose E. Burnside, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
VERMONT.
This State received its name from the French name of its range of mountains, (“verd mont” meaning “Green Mountain.”) It was settled in 1731, and was at first considered part of New Hampshire, and afterwards claimed by New York. These claims were vigorously resisted, but it had no organized government until 1777. It did good service in the Revolution; but was not admitted into the Union until 1791, making the fourteenth State. Col. Ethan Allen at the head of 270 “Green Mountain Boys” took possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in the name of the Continental Congress, in 1775, and thus assured the northern water communication with Canada to the Americans.
The climate of Vermont though cold, is pleasant and even, the soil fertile in the valleys, and the streams supply excellent water power, which, however, is little used. Maple sugar is
It has three representatives in Congress; forms part of the second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. One port of entry and two of delivery are authorized to be named by the President of the United States.
Montpelier is the capital. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in September, and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in October.
The enacting clause begins: “It is hereby enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Vermont.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Moses Robinson, | from | 1791 | to | 1796. | |
| Stephen R. Bradley, | ” | { | 1791 | ” | 1795. |
| 1801 | ” | 1813. | |||
| Elijah Paine, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| Isaac Tichenor, | ” | { | 1796 | ” | 1797. |
| 1815 | ” | 1821. | |||
| Nathaniel Chipman, | ” | 1797 | ” | 1803. | |
| Israel Smith, | ” | 1803 | ” | 1807. | |
| Jonathan Robinson, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1815. | |
| Dudley Chase, | ” | { | 1813 | ” | 1817. |
| 1825 | ” | 1831. | |||
| James Fisk, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1818. | |
| William A. Palmer, | ” | 1818 | ” | 1825. | |
| Horatio Seymour, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1833. | |
| Samuel Prentiss, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1842. | |
| Benjamin Swift, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1839. | |
| Samuel S. Phelps, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1851. | |
| Samuel C. Crafts, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1843. | |
| William Upham, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1855. | |
| Solomon Foote, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1866. | |
| ” | 1853 | ” | 1854. | ||
| Lawrence Brainard, | ” | 1854 | ” | 1855. | |
| Jacob Collamer, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1865. | |
| Luke P. Poland, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1867. | |
| George F. Edmunds, | ” | 1866 | ” | 1881. | |
| Justin S. Morrill, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1879. |
VIEW IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.
KENTUCKY.
Kentucky was formed from the territory of Virginia, and in point of seniority is the fifteenth State of the American Union, having been admitted on the first of June, 1792.
The sobriquet of “dark and bloody ground” applied to Kentucky is very suggestive of the sanguinary conflicts of her pioneer population with the aboriginal lords of the soil. The celebrated Daniel Boone was among the first white men to explore the wilderness of Kentucky. The first white settlement was commenced at Boonesborough, about the year 1769. The area of the State is 37,680 square miles, equal to 24,115,200 acres.
The climate is mild, and adapted to the production of cereals, grapes, and fruits. The soil is very fertile. The surface presents a varied aspect in its several portions. The southeastern part of the State is mountainous, the central and northern portions are undulating, sometimes hilly. The river bottoms are very productive. The State is well timbered. Apple, pear, peach, plum and various other fruit trees are cultivated with great success. The staple products are corn, tobacco and hemp. Horses, mules and cattle are raised. Kentucky abounds in bituminous coal, lead, iron pyrites, marble, freestone, gypsum, and cliff limestone.
The population in 1870 was 1,321,000. She is entitled to ten representatives in Congress, is in the sixth judicial circuit and forms one judicial district, has one port of entry, Louisville, and two ports of delivery, viz.: Paducah and Columbus. Frankfort is the capital.
The State elections are held on the first Monday in August. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, and is composed of two houses—the Senate consisting of 38 members elected for four years; and a House of Representatives elected for two years. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| John Brown, | from | 1792 | to | 1805. | |
| John Edwards, | ” | 1792 | ” | 1795. | |
| Humphrey Marshall, | ” | 1795 | ” | 1801. | |
| John Breckenridge, | ” | 1801 | ” | 1805. | |
| Buckner Thurston, | ” | 1805 | ” | 1810. | |
| John Adair, | ” | { | 1805 | ” | 1806. |
| 1806 | ” | 1807. | |||
| 1810 | ” | 1811. | |||
| Henry Clay, | ” | { | 1831 | ” | 1842. |
| 1849 | ” | 1855. | |||
| John Pope, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1813. | |
| George M. Bibb, | ” | { | 1811 | ” | 1814. |
| 1829 | ” | 1835. | |||
| Jessie Bledsoe, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1815. | |
| George Walker, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1814. | |
| William T. Barry, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1816. | |
| Isham Talbot, | ” | { | 1815 | ” | 1819. |
| 1820 | ” | 1825. | |||
| Martin D. Hardin, | ” | { | 1816 | ” | 1817. |
| 1817 | ” | 1819. | |||
| 1835 | ” | 1841. | |||
| John J. Crittenden, | ” | { | 1842 | ” | 1849. |
| 1855 | ” | 1861. | |||
| Richard M. Johnson, | ” | { | 1819 | ” | 1823. |
| 1823 | ” | 1829. | |||
| William Logan, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1820. | |
| John Rowan, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1831. | |
| James T. Moorehead, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| Jos’h R. Underwood, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| Thomas Metcalf, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1849. | |
| Archibald Dixon, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1855. | |
| David Meriwether, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1852. | |
| J. B. Thompson, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1859. | |
| Lazarus W. Powell, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1865. | |
| J. C. Breckenridge, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1861. | |
| Garrett Davis, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1873. | |
| James Guthrie, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1868. | |
| Thomas C. McCreery, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1879. | |
| John W. Stevenson, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. |
TENNESSEE.
Tennessee belonged to the territory of North Carolina while a colony, and was settled by emigrants from it in 1757. They built Fort Loudon in East Tennessee, but were destroyed, or driven away, by the Indians, in 1760. Settlement was soon resumed, but continually harrassed by Indian attacks. In 1774 Col. Lewis and Capt. Shelby attacked and defeated them. They remained quiet until after the Declaration of Independence, when the Cherokees were stirred up by British emissaries. From 1776 to 1779 three several expeditions were made against them, the Indians being decisively defeated each time. The Cherokees and Shawnees were warlike tribes, and continued,
In 1789 North Carolina renounced her claim to the territory, and in 1790 it became a separate province, being admitted into the Union as a Sovereign State in 1796, making the sixteenth, or the third admitted after the Revolutionary war—Vermont, in 1791, being the first; and Kentucky, in 1792, the second.
This State has an area of 45,600 square miles, or 29,184,000 acres. It had a population in 1870 of 1,257,983.
Tennessee is very agreeably diversified with mountain, hill and dale, containing within its limits fertility of soil, beauty of scenery, and a delightfully temperate climate. The State is generally healthy. The soil in the main is good, and while among the mountains it is not arable, it is favorable for grazing, and stock is largely exported.
Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton are the great staples.
Gold has been found in the south-east portion of the State. Among the other minerals found here are iron in abundance, some lead, silver, zinc, marble of very fine quality, and various others. The State is entitled to ten Representatives in Congress; is in the sixth judicial circuit; has three judicial districts; and has two ports of delivery—Memphis and Knoxville.
Nashville is the capital. The State election is held on the first Monday in August, and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in October, once in two years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of twenty-five members, and a House of Representatives of seventy-five members.
The enacting clause of the laws of this State is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William Blount, | from | 1796 | to | 1797. | |
| William Cocke, | ” | { | 1796 | ” | 1797. |
| 1799 | ” | 1805. | |||
| Andrew Jackson, | ” | { | 1797 | ” | 1798. |
| 1823 | ” | 1825. | |||
| Joseph Anderson, | ” | 1797 | ” | 1815. | |
| Daniel Smith, | ” | 1797 | ” | 1809. | |
| Jenkin Whiteside, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1811. | |
| George W. Campbell, | ” | 1811 | ” | 1818. | |
| Jesse Wharton, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1815. | |
| John Williams, | ” | 1815 | ” | 1823. | |
| John H. Eaton, | ” | 1818 | ” | 1829. | |
| Hugh L. White, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1840. | |
| Felix Grundy, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1840. | |
| Ephraim H. Foster, | ” | { | 1838 | ” | 1839. |
| 1843 | ” | 1845. | |||
| A. O. P. Nicholson, | ” | 1840 | ” | 1843. | |
| Alexander Anderson, | ” | 1840 | ” | 1841. | |
| Spencer Jarnagin, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| Hopkins L. Turney, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1851. | |
| John Bell, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| James C. Jones, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| Andrew Johnson, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1863. | |
| David T. Patterson, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1869. | |
| J. S. Fowler, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1871. | |
| William G. Brownlow, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Henry Cooper, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Andrew Johnson, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
OHIO.
The first permanent settlement in this important State was made on the 7th day of April, 1788. Though this fine territory lay nearest to the most populous and enterprising of the original States, the intrigues of the French before the Revolution, the hostility to which they excited the Indians, and the difficulties arising from the various claims of different States to
The settlers were, in large part, from New England; accustomed to wring a thrifty living from a rocky soil; and their industry soon brought great results from this more generous field. The population increased rapidly. In 14 years it amounted to 72,000; and was admitted into the Union with that number Nov. 29th, 1802.
The climate is healthy and mild, the soil generally very fertile, and her inhabitants have made the most of it. Coal, iron, and marble are very abundant. Manufactures have not been much developed in this State, but they are steadily growing. The lake on the north, and the river on the south, with more than 5,000 miles of railway and canals, furnish all the elements of a great and steady growth.
It was, on its admission, the seventeenth State in the Union.
It has an area of 39,964 square miles, equal to 25,576,960 acres. The population in 1870 was 2,622,214, entitling her to twenty Members of Congress.
It is in the sixth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts, the Northern and Southern.
This State has three ports of entry—Cleveland, Toledo, and Portland; and four ports of delivery, to be located where the President directs.
The capital of this State is Columbus. The State election is now held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets on the first Monday of January, biennially.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| John Smith, | from | 1803 | to | 1808. | |
| Thos. Worthington, | ” | { | 1803 | ” | 1807. |
| 1810 | ” | 1814. | |||
| Edward Tiffin, | ” | 1807 | ” | 1809. | |
| Return J. Meigs, | ” | 1808 | ” | 1810. | |
| Stanley Griswold, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1809. | |
| Alexander Campbell, | ” | 1809 | ” | 1813. | |
| Jeremiah Morrow, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1819. | |
| Joseph Kerr, | ” | 1814 | ” | 1815. | |
| Benjamin Ruggles, | ” | 1815 | ” | 1833. | |
| William A. Trimble, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1821. | |
| Ethan A. Brown, | ” | 1822 | ” | 1825. | |
| Wm. Henry Harrison, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1828. | |
| Jacob Burnett, | ” | 1828 | ” | 1831. | |
| Thomas Ewing, | ” | { | 1831 | ” | 1837. |
| 1850 | ” | 1851. | |||
| Thomas Morris, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1839. | |
| William Allen, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1849. | |
| Benjamin Tappan, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1845. | |
| Thomas Corwin, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1851. | |
| Salmon P. Chase, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| Benjamin F. Wade, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1869. | |
| George Ellis Pugh, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1861. | |
| John Sherman, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1879. | |
| Allen G. Thurman, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1881. |
LOUISIANA.
The Spaniards, who found so much gold in other parts of the American continent, made repeated explorations of the region
This purchase was regarded, even by Jefferson, as probably exceeding the powers of the government, under the Constitution; but it was essential to the development, unity, and greatness of the country. The Mississippi Valley is the heart of North America, and the use of the river as necessary to the value of the prairie States lying east of it, as to the defense and strength of the country. The possession of it could, alone, make the United States a great power among nations. Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of the French Republic, designed, in ceding it to the United States, to give England, his relentless enemy, a powerful rival; but even his keen foresight could not have anticipated the wonderful growth in which the Louisiana Purchase was so necessary an element.
The surface of Louisiana is low, and the southern part often overflowed by the high water of the rivers. Many islands
Louisiana was admitted into the Union April 8th, 1812, making the eighteenth State.
She has an area of 46,431 square miles, equal to 29,715,840 acres. The population in 1870 numbered 732,731; she has six Representatives in Congress.
Louisiana forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and constitutes two judicial districts, viz.: the eastern and western districts of Louisiana. This State has one collection district, denominated the district of New Orleans; which city is the only port of entry. The shores of the river Ohio, and all the rivers emptying into the Mississippi, are attached to the district of New Orleans, though most of them do not lie in the State. Several of the cities and towns on these rivers are made ports of delivery. Collection districts are not always confined to one State.
New Orleans is the capital. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in January, once in two years. The State election is held on the first Monday in November.
The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana, in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Thomas Posey, | October to December, 1812. | ||||
| James Brown, | from | { | 1812 | to | 1817. |
| 1819 | ” | 1824. | |||
| Allan B. Macgruder, | ” | 1812 | ” | 1813. | |
| Eligius Fromentin, | ” | 1813 | ” | 1819. | |
| W. C. C. Claiborne, | ” | 1817 | ” | 1818. | |
| Henry Johnson, | ” | { | 1818 | ” | 1824. |
| 1843 | ” | 1849. | |||
| William Kelly, | ” | 1822 | ” | 1825. | |
| Dominique Bouligny, | ” | 1824 | ” | 1829. | |
| Josiah S. Johnston, | ” | 1824 | ” | 1833. | |
| Edward Livingston, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1831. | |
| Geo. A. Waggaman, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1835. | |
| Alexander Porter, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1837. | |
| Robert C. Nichols, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1841. | |
| Alexander Morton, | ” | 1838 | ” | 1842. | |
| Alexander Barrow, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| Charles M. Conrad, | ” | 1842 | ” | 1843. | |
| Pierre SoulÉ, | ” | { | 1847 | ” | 1847. |
| 1849 | ” | 1855. | |||
| Solomon W. Downs, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| John Slidell, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1861. | |
| Judah P. Benjamin, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1861. | |
| John S. Harris, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1871. | |
| Wm. Pitt Kellogg, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| J. R. West, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
INDIANA.
1. Indiana was first explored by the enterprising French Jesuits, who highly appreciated the beauty, resources, and grand future of the vast Mississippi valley. Wiser than their sovereign, Louis XIV., they would have taken firm and effectual possession of all this region, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf,
2. After the Revolution all this region was included in the Northwest Territory. The grim earnestness of the Americans in pushing their fortunes alarmed, without conciliating, the Indians, and for a long time a deadly struggle alone could preserve the growing settlements from total extinction. The brave and talented Tecumseh and his twin brother, the Prophet, made a desperate effort to drive back or exterminate the settlers; but they were conquered, and the Indians retreated, step by step, before the advancing flood of emigration. In 1809 Indiana was erected in to a separate Territory, and admitted into the Union as a separate State on the 11th of Dec., 1816. It is 275 miles long by 135 in width. The surface is mainly level or gently undulating; the irregularities in the southern part, seldom rising more than two hundred feet, but with a rocky foundation to the soil, presenting many advantages to manufactures along the streams; these facilities are increased by the extent and value of bituminous coal deposits which underlie nearly one-fourth of the area of the State.
3. Indiana has a happier mixture of prairie and woodland than any other western State. Its commercial facilities are great. Reaching Lake Michigan on the northwest, Chicago forms a fine metropolis for the northern parts; while the Ohio on the south furnishes cheap transportation to Cincinnati and Pittsburg toward the east, or New Orleans to the southwest. Lying between the fertile and busy regions west and the great eastern markets, it is crossed in all directions by railroads. It
The resources of the State have been in a course of rapid and uninterrupted development for 60 years, but they are so great, and there are so many other inviting fields luring emigrants further west, that a comparatively small part of its wealth has yet been reached. There is a magnificent provision for education, and its intelligent and enterprising citizens are worthy of the Great Republic.
4. Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has an area of 33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Her population in 1870 was 1,673,046, which entitles her to thirteen Representatives in Congress. Indiana is the seventh judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There is no port of entry in this State; but there are three ports of delivery, to-wit: Evansville, New Albany, and Madison which are attached to the New Orleans collection district.
The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets only once in two years, on the first Wednesday of January.
The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| James Noble, | from | 1816 | to | 1831. | |
| W. Taylor, | ” | 1816 | ” | 1825. | |
| W. Hendricks, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1837. | |
| N. Hanna, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1833. | |
| John Tipton, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1839. | |
| O. H. Smith, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1843. | |
| A. S. White, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1845. | |
| E. A. Hannegan, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1849. | |
| ” | 1845 | ” | 1852. | ||
| J. Whitcomb, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| C. W. Cathcart, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1853. | |
| John Pettit, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1855. | |
| G. N. Fitch, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1861. | |
| H. A. Lane, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1867. | |
| D. Turpee, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1863. | |
| J. A. Wright, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1863. | |
| T. A. Hendricks, | ” | —— | ” | 1869. | |
| O. P. Morton, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1879. | |
| Daniel D. Pratt, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Joseph E. McDonald, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
MISSISSIPPI.
This State was explored by De Soto, a companion of Pizarro, in his cruel conquest of Peru, in 1541, and later by the enterprising French governor of Canada, La Salle, in 1684. The first settlement was made by the French, at Natchez, in 1716. It was one of a chain of settlements by which they proposed to connect the basins of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes with the Mississippi valley and the Gulf of Mexico.
The Natchez Indians gave the early colonists great trouble, but were finally so completely conquered that the national name became extinct, the few remnants surviving, becoming incorporated with other tribes. They were supposed to have anciently emigrated from Mexico or South America, some of their customs being similar to those of the Peruvians.
In 1763 the French ceded all this territory to England, except that of Louisiana, which became the possession of Spain.
The Choctaw Indians held possession of the northern part of the State for a long time, and became considerably civilized.
The northern part of the State is prairie, the soil being
The Territory of Mississippi became a State in 1817; making the twentieth State. The area is 47,156 square miles, equal to 30,179,840 acres. The population in 1870 numbered 834,170; which entitles her to six Representatives in Congress. The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into two judicial districts, viz.: the Northern and Southern districts of Mississippi. She has three ports of entry, viz.: Natchez, Vicksburg, and one near the mouth of Pearl river, to be established whenever the President may direct; also three ports of delivery, viz.: Grand Gulf, Ship Island and Columbus.
Jackson is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and her Legislature meets biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Mississippi in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Walter Leake, | from | 1817 | to | 1820. | |
| Thomas H. Williams, | ” | { | 1817 | ” | 1829. |
| 1838 | ” | 1839. | |||
| David Holmes, | ” | 1820 | ” | 1825. | |
| Powhattan Ellis, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1833. | |
| Thomas B. Reed, | ” | 1826 | ” | 1829. | |
| Robert Adams, | ” | 1830 | ” | 1830. | |
| George Poindexter, | ” | 1830 | ” | 1835. | |
| ” | 1832 | ” | 1838. | ||
| R. J. Walker, | ” | 1835 | ” | 1845. | |
| James F. Trotter, | ” | 1838 | ” | 1838. | |
| John Henderson, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1845. | |
| Jesse Speight, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1847. | |
| Joseph W. Chambers, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1847. | |
| Jefferson Davis, | ” | { | 1847 | ” | 1851. |
| 1857 | ” | 1861. | |||
| Henry S. Foote, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| John W. Rea, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1851. | |
| Walter Brooks, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1852. | |
| Albert G. Brown, | ” | 1854 | ” | 1861. | |
| Stephen Adams, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1857. | |
| Henry R. Revels, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1871. | |
| James L. Alcorn, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Adelbert Ames, | ” | —— | ” | 1875. | |
| Henry R. Pease, | ” | —— | ” | 1877. | |
| Branch K. Bruce, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
ILLINOIS.
Illinois was first visited by Europeans in the persons of French Jesuit missionaries in the year 1672, who explored eastern Wisconsin and northern Illinois in that year. The oldest permanent settlement in the valley of the Mississippi was made at Kaskaskia, in this State, in the year 1720, by the French. The name of the State is derived from the aboriginal inhabitants. In the Indian dialect it was “Illini,” and signified a perfectly formed man. The French settlers changed the name to Illinois. This State was formed from what was known as the Northwestern territory, and was the twenty-first of the American Union. It was admitted and became an independent State on the 3d day of December, 1818. It has an area of
The State is entitled to nineteen representatives in Congress, and forms a part of the seventh judicial circuit. It forms two judicial districts, viz.: northern and southern. It has one port of entry, Chicago, and four ports of delivery, viz.: Alton, Quincy, Cairo, and Peoria. The capital is Springfield. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The legislature meets biennially on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the people of the State of Illinois represented in the General Assembly.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| J. B. Thomas, | from | 1818 | to | 1829. | |
| N. Edwards, | ” | 1818 | ” | 1824. | |
| John McLean, | ” | { | 1824 | ” | 1825. |
| 1829 | ” | 1830. | |||
| D. J. Baker, | ” | 1830 | 1 month. | ||
| E. K. Kane, | ” | 1825 | to | 1836. | |
| J. M. Robinson, | ” | 1830 | ” | 1841. | |
| W. L. D. Ewing, | ” | 1835 | ” | 1837. | |
| R. M. Young, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1843. | |
| S. McRoberts, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1843. | |
| ” | 1843 | ” | 1847. | ||
| Sidney Breese, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1849. | |
| S. A. Douglas, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1861. | |
| James Shields, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| L. Trumbull, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1873. | |
| O. H. Browning, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1863. | |
| W. A. Richardson, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1865. | |
| Richard Yates, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1871. | |
| John A. Logan, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Richard J. Oglesby, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
ALABAMA.
This State was, at first, held by Georgia under her colonial charter, but was given up to the general government, in 1802, for the sum of $1,250,000. It then became a part of the Mississippi territory, but was separated when Mississippi became a State, in 1817.
It was settled in 1711, at Mobile, by the French, it being a part of the territory explored and claimed for France by La Salle in 1684. The Indian name of Alabama means “Here we rest.” Its soil can scarcely be excelled for fertility in the world. It has every variety of climate, from the high and stern severity of a mountain region in the north, through all gradations, to the heat and luxuriant vegetation of the tropics along the southern coast. The center abounds in coal and iron, and various other minerals are found in abundance. Until the Revolution it was a hunting ground for the Indians. Being then stirred up by British emissaries, and threatening the security of the frontiers, they were severely chastised. After the return of peace, when the growing wealth and population
It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 acres, and had a population in 1870 of 966,988, by which she is entitled to eight Representatives.
It forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into three judicial districts, the Northern, Middle and Southern.
It has one port of entry, (Mobile,) and two ports of delivery, viz.: Tuscumbia and Selma.
The capital of the State is Montgomery.
The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third Monday in November.
The enacting clause of its laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Alabama, in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William R. King, | from | { | 1819 | to | 1844. |
| 1846 | ” | 1852. | |||
| John W. Walker, | ” | 1819 | ” | 1822. | |
| Henry Chambers, | ” | 1825 | ” | 1826. | |
| Israel Pickens, | ” | 1826. | Superseded the same year by— | ||
| John McKinley, | ” | { | 1826 | ” | 1831. |
| 1837 | ” | 1841. | |||
| Gabriel Moore, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1837. | |
| Clement C. Clay, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1841. | |
| Arthur P. Bagby, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1849. | |
| Dixon H. Lewis, | ” | 1844 | ” | 1847. | |
| Benjamin Fitzpatrick, | ” | 1852 | ” | 1861. | |
| Jeremiah Clemens, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1853. | |
| Clement C. Clay, Jr., | ” | 1853 | ” | 1861. | |
| Willard Warner, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1871. | |
| George Goldthwaite, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| George E. Spencer, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1879. | |
This State forms the northeastern boundary of the Republic; Canada and New Brunswick lying north and east. It was at first a province, granted by charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, by the King of England, in 1638; but was united with Massachusetts by purchase in 1652. It was settled by the English, at Bristol, in 1625. It was admitted as a State into the Union March 15th, 1820, being the twenty-third in order of admission. It contains 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres in area. In 1870 the population was 626,463.
It has now five Representatives in Congress.
The northern part of this State is almost a wilderness, and furnishes large quantities of lumber, which are floated down her large rivers, and supplied, in great abundance, to the Atlantic seaports, and the West Indies. Ship-building is an extensive branch of industry, the great length and irregular line of coast forming numerous harbors. It has extensive fisheries, and a large sea-faring population. Its numerous streams are highly favorable to manufactures, though comparatively little has as yet been done in this direction. The climate is severe and the soil somewhat sterile, so that it ranks low as an agricultural State. It has received comparatively few additions to its population by foreign immigration; and its inhabitants are mainly from the old English stock, and the State ranks high in morality. It depletes itself by furnishing, like many other of the older States, annually, a large number of vigorous, enterprising young men to settle the new and fertile regions of the west.
It forms part of the first judicial circuit, and constitutes
The capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river.
The State elections are held on the second Monday of September; and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday of January in each year.
The enacting clause of its laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in Legislature assembled.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| John Holmes, | from | 1820 | to | 1833. | |
| John Chandler, | ” | 1820 | ” | 1829. | |
| Albion P. Harris, | ” | 1827 | ” | 1829. | |
| Peleg Sprague, | ” | 1829 | ” | 1835. | |
| Ether Shepley, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1836. | |
| John Ruggles, | ” | 1835 | ” | 1841. | |
| Judah Dana, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1837. | |
| Reuel Williams, | ” | 1837 | ” | 1843. | |
| George Evans, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| John Fairfield, | ” | 1843 | ” | 1847. | |
| Wynan B. S. Moore, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1848. | |
| James W. Bradbury, | ” | { | 1847 | ” | 1853. |
| 1848 | ” | 1857. | |||
| Hannibal Hamlin, | ” | { | 1857 | ” | 1861. |
| 1869 | ” | 1881. | |||
| Amos Nourse, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1857. | |
| William P. Fessenden, | ” | { | 1853 | ” | 1864. |
| 1865 | ” | 1869. | |||
| Lot M. Morrill, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1877. | |
| Nathan A. Farwell, | ” | 1864 | ” | 1865. |
MISSOURI.
This State was first settled by the French, at or near the present capital, in the year 1719. Here a fort was established, called Fort Orleans, and the neighboring lead mines were worked the next year. St. Genevieve, the oldest town in the State, was settled in 1755, and St. Louis in 1764. In 1763 it, with all the territory west of the Mississippi, was assigned by treaty to Spain. This territory was ceded back to France in 1801, and with Louisiana was purchased by the United States in 1803. It remained a part of Louisiana until the admission of the State of that name, when the remaining portion of that purchase was called Missouri. In 1821 it was admitted into the Union, forming the twenty-fourth State. This State has an area of 67,380 square miles, equal to 43,123,200 acres.
Her population in 1870 was 1,715,000, entitling her to thirteen Representatives in Congress.
The climate of Missouri is variable; in winter the thermometer sinks below zero; the summers are excessively hot; the air is dry and pure. The State is quite as healthful as any in the west. The soil is good and of great agricultural capabilities. The great staple is Indian corn. The other products cultivated largely are hemp, wheat, oats, tobacco. Sheep and cattle are considerably raised, and fruit culture is successful.
This State is in the eighth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry, and but one port of delivery, Hannibal.
The capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the last Monday of December. The
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Thomas H. Benton, | from | 1821 | to | 1851. | |
| David Barton, | ” | 1821 | ” | 1831. | |
| Alexander Buckner, | ” | 1831 | ” | 1833. | |
| Lewis F. Linn, | ” | 1833 | ” | 1843. | |
| David R. Atchison, | ” | { | 1843 | ” | 1849. |
| 1849 | ” | 1855. | |||
| Gratz B. Brown, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1867. | |
| Henry S. Geyer, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| Trusten Polk, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1861. | |
| James S. Green, | ” | 1856 | ” | 1861. | |
| Waldo P. Johnson, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1862. | |
| John B. Henderson, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1869. | |
| Charles D. Drake, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1871. | |
| Carl Schurz, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Francis P. Blair, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1873. | |
| Lewis V. Bogy, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| Frank M. Cockrell, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
MICHIGAN.
The name of this State is a contraction of two words in the Chippewa language, meaning “Great Lake,” and was applied, by the Indians, to the two surrounding the lower peninsula. It was explored by Jesuit missionaries, who established numerous missions among various Indian tribes, and pushed their way, through perils and fatigues, west to the Mississippi, which, they followed far north and south; to be soon outstripped by the adventurous La Salle. Detroit was founded about 1701.
A territorial government was organized in 1805. In 1818 the lands were brought into the market, since which its prosperity has been uninterrupted. It is remarkable in its position, and eminently so by its resources. The southern peninsula is very productive. The northern peninsula contains the richest copper mines in the world, and unlimited supplies of iron, while the quantity of the finest lumber, and the facilities for transporting it are superior. The fish taken in its lakes are excellent and abundant; its people are enterprising and intelligent; and its State authorities have established one of the best Universities in the Union. Its future promises to become equal at least to that of the most favored State.
The Territory of Michigan was changed into a State preliminarily June 15, 1836, and was fully admitted to an equality with all the States January 26, 1837, making the twenty-fifth State (Arkansas was admitted on the same day). Her area is 56,243 square miles, equal to 35,995,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,184,296, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in the sixth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, and has four collection districts and four ports of entry, viz.: Detroit, Port Huron, Grand Haven, and Michilimackinac; also five ports of delivery (if the President deem them necessary).
The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets biennially on the first Wednesday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “The people of the State of Michigan enact.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Lucius Lyon, | from | 1836 | to | 1839. | |
| John Norvall, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1841. | |
| Augustus S. Porter, | ” | 1839 | ” | 1845. | |
| William Woodbridge, | ” | 1841 | ” | 1847. | |
| Lewis Cass, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1857. | |
| Alpheus Felch, | ” | 1847 | ” | 1853. | |
| Thomas Fitzgerald, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1849. | |
| Charles E. Stewart, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1859. | |
| Zachariah Chandler, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1875. | |
| Kinsley S. Bingham, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1861. | |
| Jacob M. Howard, | ” | 1862 | ” | 1871. | |
| Thomas W. Ferry, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Isaac P. Christiancy, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
ARKANSAS.
Arkansas was originally a portion of the Territory of Louisiana. It remained a part of that territory until 1812, when the present State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union. The remainder of the territory was then formed into the Missouri Territory, and so remained until 1821 when Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas was erected into a separate territory, bearing the present name. In 1836, a State constitution was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a State in the Union. It constituted the twenty-sixth State. It has an area of 52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,720 acres. The population in 1870 was 483,197, which entitles her to four Representatives in Congress. The eastern portion of the State, extending back one hundred miles from the Mississippi, is generally a vast plain covered with marshes, swamps,
The staple products are Indian corn, cotton and live stock. Arkansas gives indications of rich mineral resources.
This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts, the eastern and western. It has no ports of entry or delivery.
The capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State election the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets but once in two years, on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Arkansas.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| William S. Fulton, | from | 1836 | to | 1844. | |
| Ambrose H. Sevier, | ” | 1836 | ” | 1848. | |
| Chester Ashley, | ” | 1844 | ” | 1847. | |
| William K. Sebastian, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1861. | |
| Solon Borland, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1853. | |
| Robert W. Johnson, | ” | 1853 | ” | 1861. | |
| Charles B. Mitchell, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1861. | |
| Alexander McDonald, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1871. | |
| Benjamin F. Rice, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| Powell Clayton, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Stephen W. Dorsey, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
FLORIDA.
This peninsula was discovered by Ponce de Leon, a companion of Columbus, in 1512, on Easter Sunday, called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida, which, with the profusion of flowers found at this early season in that tropical region, caused him to name it Florida—“the flowery land.” It was first colonized by French Huguenots, for whom Admiral Coligni desired to find an asylum in the new world, from the fierce bigotry of the times. The first settlers (1564) became discouraged and returned; the second colony, established in 1566, was destroyed by the Spaniards. These founded a settlement in 1565 at St. Augustine, which was the oldest town in the United States settled by Europeans. It remained in their hands until 1763, when, by the terms of the “Peace of Paris,” it fell into the hands of the English. It was returned to Spain in 1783.
It was acquired from Spain by treaty made with the United States in 1819, but the American authorities did not take possession until July, 1821. The consideration given by our government was about five million dollars. It is a point running out from the Southeast border of our territory, of but little elevation above the sea level, and swampy, but covered with an exuberant growth of vegetation with a chain of lakes from south to north through the center. The warmth of the climate, where no winter is ever known, promotes the growth of the rarest and most beautiful flowers; the clustering vines and dense foliage render its forests almost impenetrable, and its delicate mosses are the wonder and delight of the naturalist; while the splendid plumage of its tropical birds, flitting among the lemon and orange groves, laden at once with bud, flower and fruit, combine to add the scenery of the equatorial regions
Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845; making the twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,268 square miles, equal to 37,931,520 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 187,756. She has two Representative in Congress.
Florida lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts; and has seven ports of entry—St. Augustine, Key West, Apalachicola, Pensacola, Magnolia, St. John’s River, and Fernandina; and two ports of delivery—Palatka and Bay Port.
The capital is Tallahassee. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Florida, in General Assembly convened.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| David L. Yulee, | from | 1845 | to | 1861. | |
| J. D. Wescott, | ” | 1845 | ” | 1851. | |
| Jackson Morton, | ” | 1849 | ” | 1855. | |
| S. R. Mallory, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1861. | |
| A. S. Welch, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1869. | |
| Thomas W. Osborn, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1873. | |
| Abijah Gilbert, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Simon B. Conover, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| Chas. W. Jones, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
IOWA.
1. The name of this State in the Indian tongue is said to mean “This is the Land.” Few States have a surface, soil, and position so uniformly excellent for all their different sections. A high rolling prairie, well drained by streams, of great fertility, and almost no sterile or waste land; beautiful to look upon in its alternations of rise and fall, of prairie, stream, and timber; bounded on its extremes by the two mighty branches of the “Father of Waters,” with numerous smaller rivers hundreds of miles in length within its limits; its southern region underlaid by a vast bed of coal, its northern rich in deposits of lead; a climate free from the severity of Minnesota and Wisconsin winters, and from the intemperate heats of Missouri and Kentucky summers, it is a land to be satisfied with; and justifies the picturesque name given it by its ancient appreciative owners.
2. It was first visited by Europeans in 1673. Marquette and Joliet, two French Jesuit missionaries, whom the vast magnitudes of the North American continent seemed to stimulate like new wine, roamed alone over these immense distances, preserved by their characteristic French cordiality from the suspicion and hostility of the numerous warlike Indian tribes—who everywhere received them with hospitality, treated them with respect, and dismissed them with assistance—passed, in that year, down the Mississippi, and, landing a little above the mouth of the Moingona—which, from the similarity of sound, they corrupted into Des Moines, (Monk’s River)—they fearlessly followed an Indian trail fourteen miles into the interior to an Indian village. Some tradition or prophecy had
3. In 1832 the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes united under the Winnebago chief, Black Hawk, to invade and repossess the lands in Illinois which they had ceded to the government. Gen. Atkinson met and defeated them on the Upper Iowa, taking Black Hawk and his son prisoners. They were taken east, kindly treated, and set at liberty; and in the following year a treaty was made which ultimately extinguished the Indian title to the whole of Iowa, the Indians removing west of the Missouri. In the same year a settlement was made at Burlington. The time for Iowa had come. In 1834 it was joined to the Territory of Michigan, in 1837 was reorganized as part of the Wisconsin territory, and, in 1838, became a separate territory with the capital at Burlington. March 3d, 1845, it was conditionally, and Dec. 28th, 1846, fully admitted into the Union as a Sovereign State. In 1840 it had a population of over 40,000, in 1850 of nearly 200,000. A steady growth followed, and she has now, probably, a million and a half of inhabitants. Four parallel lines of railroad pass entirely across the State from east to west, three from north to south, and various others are in process of building or form intersecting lines. She is scarcely yet fully launched into her career of greatness. When her virgin soil shall all be broken up and its
Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admission, in 1845. It has an area of 55,045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,191,802, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and makes one judicial district. She has no port of entry, but has three ports of delivery, to-wit: Burlington, Keokuk, and Dubuque; all of which are attached to the collection district of New Orleans, in the State of Louisiana.
Des Moines is the capital. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets biennially on the second Monday in January.
The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Iowa.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| George W. Jones, | from | 1848 | to | 1859. | |
| Augustus C. Dodge, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1855. | |
| James Harlan, | ” | { | 1856 | ” | 1865. |
| 1867 | ” | 1873. | |||
| James W. Grimes, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1869. | |
| Samuel J. Kirkwood, | ” | 1866 | ” | 1867. | |
| James B. Howell, | ” | 1870 | ” | 1871. | |
| George G. Wright, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| William B. Allison, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
TEXAS.
This State forms the southwestern portion of the United States. The first settlement in Texas was made on Matagorda bay, under the French led by La Salle, in 1685. It passed into the possession of the Spanish in the year 1690.
After the independence of Mexico, in 1822, Texas remained a Mexican province until the revolution of 1836, when it gained its independence. It continued an independent republic, modeled on the United States, until 1845, when, the Texan Congress having accepted the conditions imposed by the Congress of the United States, it became the 29th State in the Union. It has an area of 237,504 square miles, equal to 152,002,560 acres. The population in 1870 was 797,500, which entitles her to six members of Congress.
This State embraces every variety of surface; mountain, plain, hill, and desert waste lie within its limits. The climate is free from the extremes of both the temperate and torrid zones, producing, in the north, many of the products of the temperate, and in the south many of those of the torrid zone. The variation in the temperature from the season of winter to that of summer is quite small, giving the State as equable a climate as any in the world. While it shares the genial climate of the “sunny South” it is free from all the deadly swamp exhalations of the lower Mississippi States. The soil, on the whole, is as fertile as any in the world. It furnishes the very best natural pasture all the year round. Cotton in large quantities—Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and other small grains—tobacco, indigo and rice, are the staple products. The grape, mulberry and the vanilla, are indigenous and abundant. Cayenne pepper
Texas abounds in minerals. Rich silver mines are already worked successfully at San Saba. Gold in small quantities has been found west of the Colorado river. Coal is abundant. Iron is found in many parts of the State. There are also salt lakes and salt springs, copper, alum, lime, agates, chalcedony, jasper and a white and red sandstone.
Texas lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and makes two judicial districts, the eastern and the western. There are three collection districts in the State. The respective ports of entry for these districts are Galveston, La Salle, and Brazos Santiago. To these are attached nine ports of delivery.
The capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Senate, elected for four years, and a House of Representatives, elected for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and are held in December. The Governor is elected for four years.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Thomas F. Rusk, | from | 1846 | to | 1856. | |
| Samuel Houston, | ” | 1846 | ” | 1859. | |
| Pinckney J. Henderson, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1858. | |
| Matthias Ward, | ” | 1858 | ” | 1861. | |
| John Hemphill, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1871. | |
| Lewis T. Wigfall, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1861. | |
| J. W. Flannagan, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Morgan C. Hamilton, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Samuel B. Maxey, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
WISCONSIN.
1. This State was visited and crossed by the early French explorers about 1665, and a settlement was made at Green Bay in 1669 and soon after on the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien. It was the policy of these enterprising men to connect the French settlements on the lower St. Lawrence by a chain of stations on the lakes and rivers with the mouth of the Mississippi. This would have passed through the heart of the country and have laid open its chief resources at once. It was a bold conception. We see it nowhere among the English explorers and settlers, who seemed not to like to lose sight of their ships; but it is quite in keeping with the grand and rapid genius of the French; and, as in so many other cases, by attempting too much they lost the whole. The English, if slower, were sure, and consolidated their possessions on the coast, gradually pushing westward as they were able to hold their ground.
2. The French explorers have left traces of their untiring activity in the names of rivers and places, and even Indian tribes, but the attention of their home government was soon withdrawn from them. No further extension was given to settlement for near 150 years, notwithstanding it was so easy of access from the south by the Mississippi river, and from the east by the chain of great lakes. Very fortunately, as it now seems, all this vast and valuable territory in the heart of the continent, equal, perhaps in its natural wealth, to the original resources of the whole of Europe, was reserved to reward the labors and consolidate the beneficent power of a Nation of Freemen, carefully trained and adapted to their high destiny.
3. The tide of emigration flowed westward by way of the Ohio river, and the States south were settled and admitted into the Union long before Wisconsin received even a Territorial government. This occurred in 1836, and in 1840 the census gave it but little over 30,000 inhabitants. Population now flowed steadily to it and we find, in 1850, over 300,000 inhabitants. It was admitted into the Union in 1848, making the thirtieth State. Its high latitude probably had something to do with this deferred settlement, the milder winters of the more southern range of States attracting the emigrants first. The climate, however, has important advantages over the States in question, being drier, less changeable, and not so subject to extremes. It is very healthy, and probably the oldest man in the country was living, hale and hearty, in this State, a few years ago, at the patriarchal age of 139. The climate is milder than in the same latitude farther east.
4. The surface is a high rolling prairie, open and mostly treeless, except near streams and bodies of water in the south, but in the north covered with timber. Vast forests of pine grow on the northern slope, which is some 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. Some parts of the State fall 600 feet below that elevation; and a succession of ridges having a general direction east and west, separate the rivers flowing into Lake Superior, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan, while many streams flow southwest into the Mississippi. The State is 285 miles long by 255 wide. Its beautiful prairies, gratefully returning a bountiful harvest to the intelligent farmer; its numerous charming lakes and ponds; its remarkable commercial advantages by lakes and rivers, supplemented by canals and railroads; its great manufacturing facilities, and valuable mineral deposits, give great promise to its future. Wheat is the leading agricultural staple, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the Northern States well reward cultivation. It has an area of 52,924 square miles, equal to 34,511,360 acres. In 1870 the population amounted to 1,055,167, which gave her eight Members of Congress. Wisconsin lies in the seventh
The capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January. The State election is on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “The people of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Henry Dodge, | from | 1848 | to | 1857. | |
| Isaac P. Walker, | ” | 1848 | ” | 1855. | |
| Charles Durkee, | ” | 1855 | ” | 1861. | |
| James R. Doolittle, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1869. | |
| Timothy O. Howe, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1875. | |
| M. H. Carpenter, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Angus Cameron, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
THE DOMES OF THE YOSEMITE.
CALIFORNIA
Is said to have been visited by the Spaniards in 1542, and by Sir Francis Drake, a celebrated English navigator, in 1578. The first mission was founded by Spanish Catholics in 1769. It was sparsely settled by Mexican rancheros, who occupied themselves chiefly in raising cattle. In 1846 Fremont, who had been conducting an exploring party across the great plains and the Rocky Mountains, defeated in conjunction with Commodore Stockton, the Mexican forces in California, and took possession of it in the name of the United States; to which it
Scarcely had this arrangement been made, when it was published that California was rich in gold, and adventurers from all sections of the Union, and various countries of the Old World, rushed in like a flood. For some years, society there, composed in large part, of the wildest and most ungovernable elements of old communities, was like a seething volcano; but, to the immortal honor of American citizens, it was subdued by the superior resolution and summary vigor of the better class of emigrants from the States, and was admitted into the Union on the 7th of Sept. 1850, with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting slavery. The discussion in Congress on this point came near precipitating the Civil War that broke out ten years later. The difficulty between the slavery and anti-slavery parties was adjusted by compromise measures, for the time, but only served to allay the agitation produced by conflict of interests and opinions, which was irreconcilable.
California “The Golden,” proved extraordinarily rich in precious metals and other minerals, as quicksilver, platinum, asphaltum, iron, lead, and rare qualities of marble. Its gold mines alone from 1858 to 1868 produced over $800,000,000.
It is a broken country, traversed by two ranges of mountains. The valleys are exceedingly productive. They are unexcelled for wheat; all kinds of fruit grow in the greatest perfection; and the grape culture promises to equal, if not to excel, the products of the most famous vineyards of Europe. Surprising as is her mineral wealth, her agricultural possibilities are far greater, and her commerce is already immense, and bids fair, from her position and relations to Eastern Asia, and the western parts of South America, to rival that of the Atlantic States.
The world was ripe for the discovery of these unparalleled
California is remarkable for the salubrity of its climate, where the rigors of winter (save on the mountains), and the excessive heats of summer are equally unknown, and for the variety and magnitude of its natural curiosities. Of the last the Yosemite valley and the Big Trees are the most prominent. She has near 1,000 miles of railroad, and has made ample provision for education.
California was the thirty-first State. It has an area of 188,982 square miles, equal to 120,948,480 acres. The population in 1870 was 560,285, entitling her to four Representatives in Congress.
By act of 1866, this State, with Oregon and Nevada, constitutes the ninth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts. California has seven ports of entry, viz.: San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego, Sacramento, Sonoma, San Joaquin and San Pedro; also, one port of delivery, Santa Barbara. California was obtained from Mexico by conquest in 1846.
The capital is Sacramento. She holds her State election on the first Tuesday in September. Her Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, but meets only once in two years.
The enacting clause of her laws is: “The people of the State of California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| John C. Fremont, | from | 1850 | to | 1851. | |
| William M. Gwin, | ” | 1850 | ” | 1861. | |
| John B. Weller, | ” | 1851 | ” | 1857. | |
| H. P. Haun, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1862. | |
| ” | 1856 | ” | 1859. | ||
| Milton S. Latham, | ” | 1860 | ” | 1866. | |
| John Conness, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1869. | |
| Cornelius Cole, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1873. | |
| J. A. McDougall, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1867. | |
| Eugene Casserly, | ” | 1869 | ” | 1875. | |
| Aaron A. Sargent, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| John S. Hagar, | ” | —— | ” | 1875. | |
| Newton Booth, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
DELLS OF THE ST. CROIX RIVER, MINN.
MINNESOTA.
This State might be called the Mother of Rivers, since it contains the high watershed, or tableland, where the rivers sending their waters to two oceans, in three directions, have their sources. The head waters of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the streams flowing into the frozen ocean of the north are all found here. In 1680 the unwearied La Salle visited the head waters of the Mississippi, but this region was long left to the sole occupation of the Indians.
Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, was built in 1819. No other territory was acquired, by extinction of the Indian title to the soil, until 1837; and in 1849 the civilized population gathered about the trading posts and missions amounted to less than 5,000. It then received a Territorial government. A considerable portion of the State having in 1851 been ceded, by treaty with the Indians, to the government, was immediately entered on by the settlers; and in 1858 it was prepared to take rank among the sovereign States. It was admitted in May of this year, by act of Congress.
In 1862 the State passed through the appalling crisis of an Indian massacre of the outlying settlements. It began without warning, in the midst of fancied security, and before adequate
The surface is undulating and high, and the soil, in good part, extremely fertile. Portions are open and rolling prairie; the remainder heavily wooded. Though the winters are long and cold, the air is dry and invigorating, and the climate healthy. It is specially favorable to the growth of wheat. Commerce is favored by the Mississippi, navigable to St. Paul, and by good harbors on Lake Superior, as well as by numerous railways. Its provision for education is excellent, and a State University at St. Anthony’s Falls promises to form a suitable crown to its intellectual advantages.
This State was admitted into the Union on the 11th day of May, 1858, and made the thirty-second State. It has an area of 83,531 square miles, equal to 53,459,840 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 435,511. This State is entitled to three Members of Congress.
It lies in the eighth judicial circuit, which is composed of Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota. Minnesota forms one judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery.
St. Paul is the capital. The Legislature meets annually on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Henry M. Rice, | from | 1857 | to | 1863. | |
| James Shields, | ” | 1857 | ” | 1859. | |
| Alex. Ramsey, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1875. | |
| Daniel Norton, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1871. | |
| Mort. S. Wilkinson, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1865. | |
| William Windom, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| S. J. R. McMillan, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
Was discovered by Spanish adventurers in the sixteenth century. In 1792 Capt. Grey, of Boston, discovered the Columbia river and entered it, securing the sovereignty of the country to the United States by right of first exploration. It was more thoroughly explored by Lewis and Clark, appointed for that purpose by the United States government, in 1804-5-6. The northern part, (now Washington Territory,) was claimed by Great Britain, and the conflicting claims produced long and dangerous diplomatic contention, which was finally peaceably ended in favor of the United States.
In 1811 a fur trading company established a fort and settlement at the mouth of the Columbia, which was taken possession of by the English in the latter part of 1813. The country was claimed by them until 1846, when the boundaries were settled by treaty; giving Oregon to the United States. Settlement from the States, however, commenced in 1839, and continued to increase until 1848, when a territorial government was organized. The excitement consequent on the discovery of gold in California drew off many of its citizens; but was, in part, counteracted by the extraordinary inducements made to actual settlers. A State constitution was adopted by the people Nov. 9th, 1857, but it was not admitted, by act of Congress, into the Union, until Feb. 14th, 1859, making the thirty-third State.
The surface of the country is divided by three ranges of mountains, the Cascade, Blue and Rocky mountains. The Cascade Range has the highest peaks found in the United States. The climate is mild near the coast, but more severe in
Oregon has experienced the disadvantage of growing up in the shade of her splendid neighbor, California, but has a solidly prosperous future before her.
It has an area of 95,274 square miles, equal to 60,975,360 acres. The population amounted in 1870 to 90,922, which did not reach the number required to entitle it to a Member of Congress according to the fixed ratio. But every State is entitled to one member, whatever its population may be. By act of 1866, the States of Oregon, Nevada and California were constituted the ninth judicial circuit. Oregon forms one judicial district, and has one collection district, and one port of entry.
The capital is Salem, where her Legislature meets once in two years, on the second Monday of September. The State election is held on the first Monday in June.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Joseph Lane, | from | 1859 | to | 1861. | |
| Delazon Smith, | ” | 1859 | ” | 1860. | |
| Edward D. Baker, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1861. | |
| Benj. F. Harding, | ” | 1862. | |||
| James W. Nesmith, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1867. | |
| Benjamin Stark, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1862. | |
| Geo. H. Williams, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1871. | |
| Henry W. Corbett, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1873. | |
| James K. Kelly, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| John H. Mitchell, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
KANSAS.
1. Nearly every State in the American Union has some advantage that is peculiar to it, or that it shares in a degree so eminent as to distinguish it from all others. Kansas is not an exception, and some of these are exceedingly attractive. They enter, to some extent, into the painful and bloody history of its first settlement; the mighty tragedy of the Civil War having enacted its prelude on her fertile plains. The Kansas and Nebraska Bill, in 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and this territory was opened to a trial of strength between Freedom and Slavery; the contest being transferred from the floors of Congress and the Representatives of the people to the settlers of the soil, who were to determine whether slavery should, or not, exist in it, as a State. The attraction of a decisive political struggle was added to the many favorable features of position, climate, and intrinsic value. Southern people sought to introduce their peculiar institution, and northern people resisted. There was much disorder and bloodshed. Every effort was made, by strategy and force, on the one side and the other. The southern party was signally defeated and there was henceforth no hope of preserving to the slave States a balance of power in the national government, and the civil war followed, almost as a natural consequence.
2. Kansas is larger by more than 3,000 square miles than the whole of New England. It lies very near the geographical centre of the country, and stretches a friendly hand, by the Pacific Railroads, to both the Atlantic and Pacific States. A good part of her soil is declared to be much superior to that
3. The eastern surface is a succession of waves, or undulations, the valleys generally extending north and south. A narrow section west of it, stretching across the State is more level and the soil lighter. Beyond this long reaches of level, fertile, and well watered lands are adapted to flocks and herds. These are much higher than the river beds, the valleys of which abound in bottoms, beautiful in appearance and situation, and of inexhaustible fertility. Vast beds of coal, a good quality and abundant quantity of iron ore, and petroleum and lead have been discovered. Corn and wheat are the leading staples, and it is believed that fruit culture will soon become a leading interest of this promising State.
Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State, Jan. 29, 1861, making the thirty-fourth State. Kansas has an area of 78,841 square miles, equal to 50,187,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 362,812, giving her three Representatives in Congress. This State is in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. It has no ports of entry or delivery.
Topeka is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Kansas.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| James Henry Lane, | from | 1861 | to | 1866. | |
| Samuel C. Pomeroy, | ” | 1861 | ” | 1873. | |
| E. G. Ross, | ” | 1866 | ” | 1871. | |
| Alexander Caldwell, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| ” | 1877. | ||||
| James M. Harvey, | ” | —— | ” | 1877. | |
| John J. Ingalls, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. |
WEST VIRGINIA.
This is the only State ever formed, under the Constitution, by the division of an organized State. The interests of West Virginia were always different from those of the eastern part; and when, at the commencement of the Civil War, the eastern part seceded, the western remained loyal and was erected into a separate State; thus realizing the ancient wish of its citizens.
The act of Congress organizing it as a State was passed December 31st, 1862, with condition that it should take effect 60 days after proclamation of its admission by the President of the United States. This proclamation was issued April 21st, 1863; and it was admitted to representation in Congress as a sovereign State June 20th thereafter. A temporary government without representation in Congress had been formed in May, 1862. It was the thirty-fifth State admitted into the Union.
It is varied in surface, from high mountain ranges, hilly and undulating midlands, to level and rich river bottoms; and is nearly all available either for cultivation or grazing; while its valuable deposits of coal lie very near the surface in nearly all parts of the State. Iron abounds, and timber of the best quality. Its manufacturing facilities are great; and its canals and railroads, with the Ohio river on its northwestern border, furnish the means of making it one of the richest States in the Union. The climate is healthy, and the scenery picturesque, and in places it rises to wild grandeur.
It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres.
The population, in 1870 was 445,616. This State has now three Members of Congress. West Virginia was subsequently put into the fourth judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. Parkersburg, also, was made a port of delivery.
Charleston is the capital. The State election is held on the fourth Thursday in October. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| Peter G. Van Winkle, | from | 1863 | to | 1869. | |
| Waitman T. Willey, | ” | 1863 | ” | 1871. | |
| Arthur J. Boreman, | ” | 1868 | ” | 1875. | |
| H. G. Davis, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Allen T. Caperon, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
NEVADA.
“The Snowy Land” derives its name from the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Range of mountains forming the eastern boundary of California. It lies in the western part of the basin of the Great Salt Lake and among those mountains, in whose rocky bosom was found the stimulus that has changed so much
Gold was found in moderate quantities among the mountains, and population began to scatter slowly over them about 1850, and soon settlers began to improve the valleys at the foot of the mountains on the east for agricultural purposes. Carson county was organized by the territorial government of Utah in 1854; but in June, 1859, rich deposits of silver were found; and emigration began to pour in rapidly. In March, 1861, the Territory of Nevada was organized, and the same month, three years later, it was admitted into the Union, making the thirty-sixth State.
The history of these States, so rich in precious metals, puts to the blush the fantastic fables of the Arabian Nights. The silver mines of Nevada are believed to be the richest in the world. The celebrated silver mines of Potosi, in South America, never produced over $10,000,000 a year, while in 1867, one mine in Nevada produced $17,500,000, and is thought to be almost, or quite, inexhaustible. The climate, like that of California, is healthy; the seasons are divided into wet and dry, and agriculture is dependent on irrigation. With time and pains its products will be considerable. It has much wild and sublime scenery, and some natural curiosities; as Lake Mono, with its waters so sharply acid as to destroy cloth and leather immersed in it. Its gloomy surroundings, and the great distance from the tops of the precipitous rocks surrounding its shores to the surface of the water lend an impressive and fearful character to its severe desolation. It lies below the reach of the winds, and no living thing can exist in its waters.
It has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. The population in 1860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In 1870 it had increased to 42,491. In conformity with the Constitutional provision that every State shall have one Representative in Congress, Nevada has one. This State lies in the ninth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district, called the district of Nevada.
Carson City is the capital. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in November; and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in January.
The enacting clause of the laws is in the following words: “The people of the State of Nevada, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| James W. Nye, | from | 1865 | to | 1873. | |
| William M. Stewart, | ” | 1865 | ” | 1875. | |
| John P. Jones, | ” | 1873 | ” | 1879. | |
| Wm. Sharon, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
NEBRASKA.
1. Formed a part of the Louisiana Purchase from the French government in 1803. It received a Territorial government in 1854, and was, by the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, equally with Kansas, exposed to the introduction of slavery; but the Southern people limited their efforts in that direction to Kansas, and Nebraska did not share in its disorder and bloodshed.
2. The greater portion of the country consists of a high, rolling prairie. The soil in the eastern part of the State is nearly the same as that of the adjoining portions of Iowa and Kansas. It is a rich loam, finely pulverized, and admirably adapted to cultivation. The second district, near the center of the State, is strictly pastoral. The third, or western section, has a fair soil, but is destitute of timber, and insufficiently supplied with water.
Throughout the fertile portion of the State, wheat, corn, oats, and other cereals, and vegetables and fruits yield largely. Vast herds of buffaloes formerly roamed over its prairies; but they
3. The educational advantages are good. The Common School System, modeled on that of Ohio, is well supplied with funds, embracing one-sixteenth of the public land, or 2,500,000 acres. 90,000 acres were given to endow a State Agricultural College, and 46,081 acres to the State University.
Its commercial facilities are supplied by the Missouri River, the Pacific and other railroads, and are amply sufficient to develop its resources. The future of the State has many elements of promise. No public debt impedes its growth, and within the last few years it has increased in wealth and population more rapidly than any of the adjoining States or Territories. An unknown, but certainly not limited, amount of wealth still lies locked up in its soil, and its relation to ocean commerce by the mighty Missouri, and to inter-State trade by lying in the great traveled route between the Atlantic and Pacific States, with a remarkably fine, healthy climate, and the ease with which its soil is worked, contribute to form a powerful attraction to labor and capital, and we have no reason to suspect any decrease in its rapid progress.
4. On its admission, in 1867, it was the thirty-seventh State. It has an area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres.
Population in 1870, 123,000. It forms the ninth judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery.
The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the second Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets on the Thursday after the first Monday in January.
UNITED STATES SENATORS.
| John M. Thayer, | from | 1867 | to | 1871. | |
| Thomas W. Tipton, | ” | 1867 | ” | 1875. | |
| Phineas W. Hitchcock, | ” | 1871 | ” | 1877. | |
| Algernon S. Paddock, | ” | 1875 | ” | 1881. |
CHIMNEY ROCKS OF THE WEST.
COLORADO
Was formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. Its Territorial government was organized by act of Congress, March 2nd, 1861. It is situated west of Kansas, on the great route from the Pacific to the Atlantic States, and on the dividing ridge, or backbone, of the continent. The rivers that find their head waters within the territory run southeast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and southwest to the Gulf of California. The surface is nearly equally divided between a plain, gently descending from the abrupt mountain wall of rock constituting the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, and the mighty mass of that chain, with its peaks, rising nearly three miles above the surface of the sea, now forming an elevated plateau, and again sending off spurs and lateral ranges containing beautiful valleys, or, in a more lavish and genial mood, taking a wide circuit inclosing an immense sunken plain containing hundreds of square miles of charming, well watered farming land called parks. Of these there are seven. It is a magnificent region, and contains all the elements of extreme mineral and agricultural wealth. It has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. Coal abounds in all parts, oil flows from the wells with a little encouragement, and salt is easily obtained in some parts. An immense soda-fountain is found near Colorado City, called Fontaine qui Bouille (boiling fountain) and there are indications of cinnabar, platina, and precious stones.
The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern Pennsylvania or Maryland; and, from the elevation, the air is very dry and pure. The plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 5,000 feet, (about one mile,) above the level of the sea, at
It furnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the unfailing mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ultimately unite with Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply the immense central part of our domain with all the products of manufacturing genius and skill.
Denver the capital and principal city, is situated near the eastern base of the mountains, where these put on their severest and sublimest aspect. Clear lakes are set like stars, here and there, and the beautiful and grand in scenery are nowhere more striking, or more agreeably combined.
The Territory contains 106,475 square miles in area, and the population in 1870 numbered 29,706.
Several attempts have been made to obtain the admission of Colorado as a State into the American Union. An act to enable the people to form a constitution and State Government was passed by Congress, March, 1864. The constitution, framed under this act, was rejected by the people of the territory. Another constitution was framed and adopted in 1865, but a bill, passed by Congress for its admission, was vetoed by the President. Another attempt made in 1867 likewise failed by the President’s veto; since which time it quietly remained under its Territorial government, until March 3, 1875, when it was admitted by Act of Congress.
CHAPTER LXVII.
MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES.
United States—E Pluribus Unum, “Out of Many, One.”
Alabama—Has no motto. Name, from its principal river, means “Here we rest,” and denotes the satisfaction of the Indians with its agreeable landscape and climate.
Arkansas—Regnant populi—“The people rule.” Has the Indian name of its river. Is called the “Bear State.”
California—Eureka, her Greek motto, means “I have found it.” Derives her name from the bay forming the peninsula of lower California.
Colorado—Latin motto, Nil sine numine, means “Nothing can be done without divine aid.” Named from the river.
Connecticut—Qui transtulit Sustinet, “He who brought us over sustains us.” Name from her river, which means, in the Indian tongue, “The long river.” Is called the “Nutmeg State.”
Delaware—Motto, Liberty and Independence. Was named from Lord Delaware, an English statesman. Is called “The Blue Hen.”
Florida—Motto, “In God is our trust.” Name from the abundance of flowers when discovered, on Easter Sunday. In Spanish Florida means flowery.
Georgia—Motto, “Wisdom, justice and moderation.” Named from George II, King of England when it was settled.
Illinois—Motto, “State Sovereignty, National Union.” Name derived from an Indian tribe, also applied by them to Lake Michigan and her largest inland river. Means “We are the men.” Is called the “Sucker State.”
Indiana—Has no motto. Name suggested by its numerous Indian population. It is called the “Hoosier State.”
Iowa—Motto, “Our liberties we prize, our rights we will maintain.” Its Indian name means “This is the Land.” Is called the “Hawk Eye State.”
Kansas—Motto, Ad astra per aspera, “To the stars through difficulties.” Name means “Smoky water,” and is derived from one of her rivers.
Kentucky—Motto, “United we stand, divided we fall.” Bears the Indian name of one of her rivers. The Indians termed it the “dark and bloody ground.” It was the battle field of Northern and Southern Indians. Is called the “Blue Grass State.”
Louisiana—Motto, “Union and confidence.” Named from Louis XIV, King of France. It is called “The Creole State.”
Maine—Latin motto, Dirigo, “I direct;” indicative of sovereignty. Was named for a province of France. Is called “The Pine Tree State.”
Maryland—Latin motto, Crescite et multiplicamini, “Increase and multiply.” Name from the Queen of England, the wife of Charles I.
Massachusetts—Latin motto, Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem, “By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty,” or “Conquers a peace.” The name was acquired from an Indian tribe and the bay on her coast. Is called the “Bay State” from her numerous bays.
Michigan—Latin motto, Tuebor, and, Si quÆris peninsulam amoenam circumspice. “I will defend.” “If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look around you.” The name is derived from two Indian words meaning “Great Lake,” by them applied to Huron and Michigan lakes. Is called “The Wolverine State.”
Minnesota—French motto, L’Etoile du Nord, “The Star of the North.” The name, meaning whitish water, (foam of the falls,) is derived from the Indians.
Missouri—Latin motto, Salus populi suprema lex esto, “Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law.” Named from her great river. It means “Muddy water.”
Mississippi—Has no motto. It is named from the river, whose name signifies “The Father of Waters.”
Nebraska—Motto, “Equality before the law.” Its name is derived from one of its rivers, meaning “broad and shallow, or low.”
New Hampshire—Has no motto. It is named from a
New Jersey—Motto, “Liberty and Independence.” Named for the Island of Jersey on the coast of England.
New York—Latin motto, Excelsior, “Higher.” Named from the Duke of York. Is called “The Empire State.”
North Carolina—Has no motto. It was named for Charles IX, King of France. It is called “The old North,” or “The Turpentine State.”
Nevada—Latin motto, Volens et potens, “Willing and Able.” It was named from its mountains. Spanish name means “Snowy.”
Ohio—Latin motto, Imperium in imperio, “An empire in an empire.” It took its name from the river on its south boundary. It is familiarly called “The Buckeye State.”
Oregon—Latin motto, Alis volat propriis, “She flies with her own wings.” Name is derived from her principal river.
Pennsylvania—Motto, “Virtue, liberty and independence.” Named from Wm. Penn, “Penn’s woods.” Is called the “Keystone State.”
Rhode Island—Her motto is “Hope.” Named from the Island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean Sea. Is familiarly called “Little Rhody.”
South Carolina—Latin motto, Animis opibusque parati, “Ready in will and deed.” Has the Latin name of Charles IX, of France (Carolus). Is known as the “Palmetto State.”
Tennessee—Motto, “Agriculture, Commerce.” Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. She is called “The Big Bend State.”
Texas—Has no motto. Has preserved its Mexican name. Is called “The Lone Star State.”
Vermont—Motto, “Freedom and Unity.” Has the French name of her mountains (Verd Mont, “Green Mountains”).
Virginia—Latin motto, Sic semper tyrannis, “So always with tyrants.” Was named from Elizabeth of England, the “Virgin” Queen. It is called “The Old Dominion.”
West Virginia—Latin motto, Montani semper liberi, “Mountaineers are always free.” Retained the former name, when divided from Virginia.
Wisconsin—Latin motto, Civilitas successit barbarum, “The civilized man succeeds the barbarous.” Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. It is called “The Badger State.”
CHAPTER LXVIII.
THE NATIONAL DOMAIN.
1. When the War of Independence closed, and the people and government had leisure to look about them and estimate their situation, they found the organized States covering the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, (then in possession of Spain.) There was no vacant territory near the ocean; but west of the States—which run back only a few hundred miles—was a vast region, peopled by a few tribes of Indians and, in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a few hundred whites. These with singular hardihood and self reliance, had not hesitated to brave a thousand perils to get possession of the charming valleys and fertile savannahs of the eastern part of the great Mississippi Valley. The settlements were made near the mountains that skirted the western boundaries of the original States. Beyond, to the Mississippi river, extended as beautiful and fertile a territory as any land could boast; many times larger than the original territory, whose people, poor and few as they were, had fought for and won it by persistent bravery. It lay in virgin beauty and wealth, the prize of their strong hands and courageous hearts. The future of the new government once determined, and the fundamental Law of the Land adopted, they prepared to take possession by organizing a government over those already there, surveying and laying off the unsettled lands, and bringing them into market for sale and settlement.
2. The States had owned all the property, and held all the
He alone it has been believed could have put its machinery in successful operation; and the admirable manner in which the statesmen, in Congress and the executive offices, infused the spirit of freedom and moderation into the administration, following in the lead of the revered “Father of his Country,” settled it in the confidence and affections of the people.
3. We have dwelt on this point because it is intimately related to the organization and government of the Territories, and to the provision made for the increase of States. It was important that they should be in harmony with the original ones, and there were no means of securing this and providing against the future growth of governments, differing from those of the original States, but by giving the central power a general control over them. The Constitution conferred it on Congress. Ohio, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was obliged to wait till this point was settled, before it could be opened to the entrance of emigrants. This region was early erected into a separate government, by Congress, called
4. In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of the French government. This extended the National Domain from the mouth to the head waters of this river, and westward, north of the Spanish possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many new States and Territories have been formed from it. The process of multiplication has not yet ceased in this region. In 1819 Florida was purchased; a part of Mexico was obtained in 1848, and again in 1853; and the increase of territory continued by the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a manner, traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be continued to some extent in the future.
5. The government of the territories is established by act of Congress; the President nominates and the Senate confirms the Governor, Secretary, and Judges of the courts; and Congress passes all the general laws for the government of the inhabitants. A Territorial Legislature is elected by the inhabitants, which takes charge of all the local interests of the Territory. All these laws and organizations are temporary, and pass away when a State government is founded. Commonly, an act of Congress authorizes the election of Delegates to a Convention for framing a State Constitution; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular vote of the citizens in the Territory; and if they favor it, presented to Congress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our usages, and republican principles, Congress accepts it, and, if the President does not see cause to veto it, a new State has come
CHAPTER LXIX.
THE INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES.
The territories are here arranged in the order of seniority, the one which first received a territorial government taking the lead. The District of Columbia is older than any of them as acknowledged National property, the Louisiana Purchase having been made since it was ceded to the general Government; but it was the last to receive a territorial organization, Congress governing it directly without giving it representation until 1871. It is placed last for that reason.
NEW MEXICO
Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the success of the followers of Cortez and Pizarro in discovering rich mines of gold and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers and hardships of travel which is more often, if more slowly, found as the reward of patient toil. An expedition from Florida made the formidable overland journey to New Mexico, in 1537; and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila River, passed eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no settlement was made until 1600, when formal possession was taken by an adequate army. The missions now became very successful and the mines were worked. Many of the natives were considerably advanced in some of the arts of civilization. In 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to which they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country. They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously peopled by whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kearney, and in 1848 ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The
Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been effectively worked for want of transportation and the requisite capital. Stock raising is a profitable occupation in this Territory. Much of the land unfit for cultivation produces grass which cures in drying during the hot months, and preserves all its nutritious qualities. Sheep and mules are extensively raised. When the Pacific railroad shall open the country to immigration, and order, industry, and capital make the most of its resources, it will be ranked among the favored parts of the Union.
It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beautiful scenery. The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings in the Territory, is about 1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve miles wide. Its Territorial government was organized in 1850. The population, in 1870, was 91,878. Many tribes of Indians roam over the territory and through Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It includes an area of about 100,000 square miles. Every free white male inhabitant living in the territory at the time of its organization had the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in other respects by its legislative Assembly.
UTAH
Was formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper California, and was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for much settlement by Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the explorations of Fremont between 1843 and 1846.
The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the territory of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interference. Here, in the depths of the desert, they determined to build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs abhorrent to the views and institutions of modern civilized States. Their success was a surprise to the world, and probably to themselves; the capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expectation. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, before inaccessible, desert into the limits of the American Union; and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of California, throwing them almost midway between the old western settlements and the new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed toward the setting sun; and in ten years from their first appearance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came again into hostile conflict with the established authorities they thought to have finally escaped. Though their conflict with the United States government, imbued with the habits and prejudices with which they antagonized, was deferred by the troubles which precipitated the Civil War, and their institutions remained substantially intact until that was past; the Pacific Railroad was then built through their territory, and, if they are no longer persecuted, and their peculiarities opposed by deadly force, the moral influence and dissolving power introduced by numbers is more surely wasting away the foundations of their political and religious edifice.
Utah was organized as a territory by act of Congress Sept. 9th, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, became the first governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to remove him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862 the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union as a State, with their “peculiar institutions,” but failed. A Territorial Government exists, but has little force, or vitality, while the Mormons are large in numbers. According to the habits of our people, conflict is avoided so far as possible, to await the more peaceable and natural solution of the difficulty by moral forces.
Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these with the ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a continent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and its waters are very salt—three parts of the water producing one of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives the contents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to the ocean is unknown. The soil, though in its natural state an apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irrigated, and produces wheat and other cereals in great profusion. Its mountains are believed to be rich in silver and gold; but the Mormons have discouraged mining, and very little has been done in that direction.
Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and experiments with flax and silk culture have been very favorable. The climate is mild and healthy.
Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. Its population in 1870 was 86,786; its area about 87,500 square miles.
WASHINGTON TERRITORY
Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. It was at first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early
Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia river, where it flows down from British America, 22,000 square miles of arable land. There is much that is adapted only to grazing, and vast quantities covered with forests in the wild mountain regions of the eastern part of the territory.
It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less of the precious metals. The great distinction of Washington territory is its forests. The warm ocean currents from the Indian ocean, after traversing the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown across the North Pacific against the western shores of North America, and effect an important modification in the severity and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific slope. The climate is much milder and more equable than in the same latitude east of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable to forest growth. It is the best ship building timber in the world. The trees are immense, often reaching a height of 300 feet with a diameter of 8 to 12 feet.
The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cascade mountains is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of the Cascades the country is open prairie, well watered, with small and thinly wooded valleys. The land immediately about Puget Sound is sandy, not valuable for farming though producing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled in richness.
Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., are very prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are produced. There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts away, except far up in the mountains. Washington
Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and the population in 1870 was 23,901.
DACOTAH.
This territory received an organization and government in 1861. It contains 240,000 square miles; and is greater in extent than all New England together with the great and wealthy States of New York and Pennsylvania; and possesses some peculiar advantages.
The Missouri River passes from southeast to northwest diagonally through it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of more than a thousand miles; the Red River of the North skirts its eastern line, its valley being unrivalled for its richness, and adaptation to the growth of wheat. Except the extreme northern part it is said to have the dry, pure, and healthy climate of Southern Minnesota, with the soil of Central Illinois.
It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing in Iowa and Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agriculture often experienced in these States from excessive spring rains; while, in late spring and early summer, copious showers supply sufficient moisture to promote a rapid vegetable growth. The surface east and north of the Missouri is an undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed by many streams and dotted with innumerable lakes, of various sizes, whose woody and rocky shores and gravel bottoms supply the purest water, and lend the enchantment of extreme beauty to the landscape.
It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation, for the most profitable production of the two great staples of American agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri
ARIZONA.
The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early day; but the distance from Mexico, and the warlike character of the Indians, did not favor settlement beyond what was gathered about the few missions that were constructed so as to answer for fortresses.
The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it formed part,) and California was acquired to the United States by the Gadsden treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The American government paid $10,000,000 for it. A Territorial government was organized Feb. 24th, 1863, and embraced part of New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of 121,000 square miles, or 77,440,000 acres.
Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and develop its mines; and an overland mail stage route was established. This proved a success; but the fierce hostility of the Apache Indians, and the desperate character of such whites as had gathered there, fleeing from justice in California and Sonora, discouraged the immigration of law-abiding citizens; and the breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the soldiers in garrison there for the protection of the country. After the war the main stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital and machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest in the world, nothing could be extracted from them by individuals without means. So the population has increased slowly, the census of 1870 giving 9,658.
It is a strange and somewhat fearful land; in great part a region of desolate mountains and deep canons. There are
When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to order, it will become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of the older States, and the diligent German and other foreign immigrants.
It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared; some of their dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. They were probably Aztecs, the race that ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are more ancient still. Hideous idols are found, and various indications of a barbarous worship.
The completion of the Southern Pacific railway will introduce the hum of industry among its desolate mountains and along its numerous fertile valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of the Colorado, a large river opening into the head of the Gulf of California, will give it a profitable commerce. Arizona lies south of Utah, to which it is superior in the number and size of its streams, its larger quantity of timber, and the amount of rain-fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections, sufficient to dispense with the necessity of irrigation.
IDAHO.
This territory was organized March 3rd, 1863. It originally embraced a vast territory lying on both sides of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains; but the eastern portion has since
Idaho has very little history prior to the organization of its Territorial government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in its mines, as yet, and the population is floating, and, in large part, rough and sometimes disorderly. The difficulty of reaching it has prevented its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in the precious metals and this will, in time, attract a large population. The eastern and northern parts are very mountainous, abounding in wild and striking scenery and in natural curiosities. The soil in the southern, central, and western parts, is fertile, producing wheat and other small grain, and vegetables very successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great depth in the mountains; but the streams are numerous, and there is much choice farming land, which may, ultimately, serve to support its mining population.
It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line of British America; Washington Territory and Oregon, lying west. When railroads shall render it accessible, and open the way for its treasures to a market, it will be filled with an industrious and hardy population who will find all the elements of a prosperity as great as any section of the Union enjoys. It has three beautiful lakes—the Coeur d’Aline, the Pen d’Oreille, and the Boatman—of some size, and navigable for steamers. BoisÉ City is the capital.
MONTANA TERRITORY
Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky Mountains, in part on the western slope, but extending into the eastern valleys; and contains the sources of the streams forming the Missouri river; while Idaho lies west among the Blue mountains where the tributaries of the Columbia rise.
Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are said to be much richer than those of California. The average
There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great difficulty in most of the other mining regions; and the country everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principal range of the Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged character of most other ranges. Associated with this point is the important fact of great agricultural capability. It is one of the best grazing regions west of the Mississippi. Small grain and fruit are grown with the greatest ease, as also the more important vegetables. There is abundance of timber for all purposes of home consumption.
The area is stated at 153,800 square miles. The population in 1870 was 20,594.
ALASKA TERRITORY
Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the year 1867, for $7,200,000. It is a vast region containing 394,000 square miles, with 24,000 inhabitants.
It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia in 1728. A government was first established on Kodiak island in 1790. In 1799 the Russian American fur company was chartered by the Emperor Paul.
The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly level country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast runs south for a long distance, including many islands. The Aleutian group of islands is included. The principal value of the region to Russia was the fur trade. The annual export of these
The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem to imply—Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean temperature, by the thermometer, as Washington! It is, however, extremely damp. In one year there were counted only 66 entire days without rain or snow. The coast is broken with mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some very high mountains—Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian group are volcanic in origin. There are several rivers, the largest, the Yukon, or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and navigable for 1,500 miles. There are vast supplies of timber, much being pine, found nowhere else on the Pacific coast. Vegetables, and some grains, may be raised without difficulty, and the soil, in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal are believed to exist. The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are to be found there, but the country has been very imperfectly explored.
In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with Japan, China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of great value, and its resources contribute to the wealth of our country.
WYOMING TERRITORY
Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the youngest of the territories. Its area is stated at 100,500 square miles, and it had a population, in 1870, of 9,118.
The Pacific railroad passes through it, to which its settlement is probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north; Dacotah and Nebraska on the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the northern part of Utah and Idaho on the west.
The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from northwest to southeast which maintain here the same general characteristic as in Montana, viz.: that of a rolling upland. Its outlying ranges are more broken. Most of the country is
Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; coal is extremely abundant and accessible; the supplies for the Pacific railroad being obtained in this territory. Iron has been found in considerable quantities, together with lead and copper ores. Oil and salt springs promise to be productive.
Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the resources of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of prosperity to a large population; while the climate is mild and extremely healthy, and the great thoroughfare between the east and the west furnishes all necessary facilities for transporting its supplies to the best markets. More intimate knowledge of its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a higher rank as a mining State.
THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 1789, held its session in New York. The seat of government was then removed to Philadelphia. There was much dissension as to where it should be permanently located. The North and the South, were each equally obstinate in their desire to locate it in their own section, and the quarrel threatened a rupture of the confederacy. The great political question of the time was the debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of Independence. The South, disliking a strong central-government, opposed giving the charge of the finances of the country into its hands; while the North, strongly approved the plan of clothing it with authority to concentrate the strength of the nation to a reasonable extent, so that it might be able to act with vigor, and make the country formidable to its enemies. The reservation of as much power as possible to the individual States was a vital question with the South, since it wished to maintain Slavery, and it was always
The question was a very difficult and delicate one to adjust, but with much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antagonists in politics, united to urge a compromise; the North conceding the location of the national capital, and the South the assumption, by the general government, of the State debts. This was accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the site on his own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract ten miles square, extending to both sides of the river. A new city was laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the first time in 1800. This small territory, the government and control of which was lodged wholly in Congress, was called “Columbia.” This possession of its own capital was considered important in order to avoid a possible conflict of Federal and State authority.
The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called Washington. The territory on the Virginia side was, in 1846, re-ceded to Virginia. On Feb. 21st, 1871, the District was made a territory, with a legislature for its internal government, and the right to be represented by one member in the House of Representatives.
The population in 1870 was 131,706. Washington is adorned with many immense buildings erected for the various departments of the government, and the capitol itself is one of the largest in the world, and cost $5,000,000. It is worthy of the great nation represented in its halls.
CHAPTER LXX.
THE ANNEXATION POLICY.
1. The original States of the American Union were all on the Atlantic seaboard. The central States were separated from
2. It soon became clear that the development of the Western States east of the Mississippi required the possession of the lower part of the river and the territory on its western bank. Circumstances were favorable to its acquisition, and Louisiana, extending from the mouth of the river far up toward its head waters, including several hundred thousand square miles of as valuable land as was to be found on the continent, was purchased. It entered into the vindictive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte to injure England by strengthening America, and it was obtained for the comparatively insignificant sum of fifteen million dollars. This annexation was altogether essential to the security and development of the larger part of the original territory.
3. Florida was discovered and settled by the Spaniards, who claimed the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi river. Though it was not commercially or agriculturally important to us, it became in the hands of a power not very friendly, the support and refuge of the barbarous and resolutely
4. By this time a sufficient degree of expansion and strength had been acquired by the New Nation to inspire in it great confidence in itself and grand views of its future, and the “Monroe Doctrine,” that the United States would refrain from all meddling with the politics of Europe, but would resolutely oppose the meddling of any European power with the politics of this continent, was adopted. This doctrine did not propose any interference with other governments already established here, but America was to be left to its present possessors, and European ambition was to look elsewhere for kingdoms to conquer or found. A tacit protectorate over all America was assumed, in order to prevent the entrance of any other element that might build up a system hostile to our interests and progress. It was a legitimate conclusion from the principles and necessities that had led to the inauguration of the annexation policy. The nation claimed that it had a right to keep the ground clear from obstacles to its natural development. It was a system of growth and protection involving no ideas of conquest by force, and no menace to governments already established.
5. The third addition to our territorial area took place under circumstances which all true Americans will ever regret. If stated by our enemies it would be said that, after encouraging the settlement of the territory of a neighbor by our own
6. It cannot be agreeable to lovers of justice and defenders of equal rights, that there should be so much of truth in this statement as to render it impossible to clearly and distinctly prove the contrary. There was, however, an element of the necessary and unavoidable, even in this, that was more in harmony with the previous system of acquisition than appeared on the surface. Texas presented, perhaps, the finest climate and the greatest facilities for money-making on the continent. The Mexicans inherited the religion and hatred of protestants with the haughty, repelling spirit of the Spaniards, and wished to preserve the old Spanish policy of separating themselves from us by a broad barrier of desert and wilderness. They did not wish to settle Texas themselves, nor feel willing that any one else should. It is inevitable that enterprise and strength, impelled by self-interest, will disregard such wishes. Americans are neither perfect nor magnanimous enough to stand on ceremony when their interests are concerned. The best that can be said of them is that they are more moderate and self-contained than any other people. The necessities of the institution of slavery required more territory to balance the rapid increase of free States, and this precipitated the movement that was inevitable sooner or later from other causes. Indeed the first patent of territory obtained in Texas, from the Mexican government, was by a native of Connecticut. The rapid growth of commerce in the Pacific ocean, the agreeable climate and fertile soil of California, and the unsettled, wilderness state of that region, caused the commercial nations of Europe to look at it with longing eyes. The Monroe doctrine was in danger of being violated. England had fully prepared to plant
7. Thus the enterprise and energy of the nation, which had still further developed its instinct, or anticipations and plans, of future greatness, required to use the vast resources of the Gulf region, and to extend settlements to the Pacific Slope in order to develop the mineral resources of that region and prepare to build up its commerce with Eastern Asia. The northern parts of Mexico were useless to her, since she had neither population to occupy them, nor strength to subdue the Indians who roamed over them in scattered bands. There is a justice and propriety which has the force of Natural Law in allowing the active and vigorous to take possession of the natural resources that others can not or will not develop. The earth was made for mankind as a whole, and what cannot benefit one race, another, that is able to employ it for its own and the general good, has some show of right in entering upon. That, at least, must be the justification of our ancestors in intruding themselves upon the lands and hunting grounds of the aboriginal inhabitants of America, and our only excuse for making war with the Indians, forcing them to part with their lands, confining them to reservations, and denying to King Philip, Powhattan, and Tecumseh the admiration and esteem we give to the patriotic defenders of our native land and natural rights.
8. It is to be regretted that the vast and valuable territory acquired from Mexico should be the spoil of conquest rather than the fruit of peaceful negotiation; but the eagerness of the speculator, the unreasonable pride and selfishness of the Mexican, and the peculiar requirements of our internal conflict over slavery put to silence, for a time, the voice of moderation and equity, and we annexed near 1,000,000 square miles of territory by force. The payment of $18,500,000, when we might have taken it without, was an indication that our ordinary sense of justice was not altogether quenched.
9. We may reasonably consider that this was exceptional, and that the confusion of judgment and the disorder consequent on the life and death struggle of the institution of slavery,
10. Two annexations have been made since the Mexican war. Arizona was obtained by treaty and purchase from Mexico, in 1854, and Alaska by treaty and purchase from Russia, in 1867. The first is valuable for its mineral treasures. It was useless to Mexico, though we gave $10,000,000 for it. It will ultimately be worth to us hundreds of millions, and its ruins of an ancient people will be replaced by a thriving population of intelligent freemen. Alaska is specially valuable in relation to our future commerce with Asia, and for its fisheries and fur trade. Its internal resources are, as yet, scarcely known.
11. The superior stability of American institutions and the love of law and order of the American people may make annexation desirable and profitable to the more volatile and unsteady Southern States of America, but it is probable that no labored efforts to induce annexation will be tolerated by the mass of the people. We may fairly judge that we have reached our natural boundaries; that the advancement of neighboring governments in order and intelligence will suffice to give protection to the comparatively small numbers who may find a better field for their energies without than within the Union; and that if any future annexations are made it will be by the purchase of uninhabited regions that may be more valuable to us than to their owners; or that, if any inhabited regions are incorporated into the Union, it will be at the instance and desire of its own inhabitants rather than of our people. We are the special champions of popular and all other rights, and shall never be likely to forget ourselves again so far as to repeat the Mexican war, however pressing our desires.
CHAPTER LXXI.
CENSUS STATISTICS.
Population of the United States and Territories from 1790 to 1870.
Transcriber’s Note: Some of the figures in this table are unreadable and are represented by X. Several copies of the book were checked and all have the same printing error. Later editions use different figures in that column and can’t be relied on to fill in the missing data.
| States. | Where Settled. | 1790 | 1800 | 1810 | 1820 | 1830 | 1840 | 1850 | 1860 | 1870 | Slaves in 1790 | Slaves in 1860 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | Mobile | —— | —— | —— | 127901 | 309527 | 590756 | 771623 | 964201 | 996988 | —— | 435132 |
| Arkansas | Arkansas Post | —— | —— | —— | 14255 | 30388 | 97574 | 209897 | 435450 | 483179 | —— | 111104 |
| California | Monterey | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 92597 | 379994 | 560285 | —— | —— |
| Connecticut | Windsor | 238141 | 251202 | 262042 | 275102 | 297675 | 309978 | 370792 | 460147 | 537418 | 2759 | —— |
| Delaware | Cape Henlopen | 59096 | 64273 | 72674 | 72749 | 76748 | 78085 | 91532 | 112215 | 125015 | 8887 | 1798 |
| Florida | St. Augustine | —— | —— | —— | —— | 34730 | 54477 | 87445 | 140425 | 187756 | —— | 61753 |
| Georgia | Savannah | 82548 | 162101 | 252433 | 340983 | 516823 | 691392 | 906185 | 1057286 | 1200609 | 29264 | 462232 |
| Illinois | Kaskaskia | —— | —— | 12282 | 55102 | 157445 | 476183 | 851470 | 1711951 | 2539638 | —— | —— |
| Indiana | Vincennes | —— | 4875 | 24520 | 147178 | 343031 | 685866 | 988416 | 1350428 | 1673046 | —— | —— |
| Iowa | Dubuque | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 43112 | 192214 | 674913 | 1191802 | —— | —— |
| Kansas | Fort Leavenworth | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 107206 | 362872 | —— | —— |
| Kentucky | Boonesboro | 73077 | 220955 | 406511 | 564135 | 687917 | 779828 | 982405 | 1155684 | 1321001 | 11830 | 225490 |
| Louisiana | Iberville | —— | —— | 76556 | 152923 | 215739 | 352411 | 517762 | 708002 | XXXX731 | —— | 333010 |
| Maine | York | 96540 | 151719 | 228705 | 98269 | 399455 | 501793 | 583169 | 628279 | XXXX463 | —— | —— |
| Maryland | St. Marys | 319728 | 341584 | 380546 | 407350 | 447040 | 470019 | 583034 | 687049 | XXXX806 | 103036 | 87188 |
| Massachusetts | Plymouth | 378718 | 423245 | 472040 | 523159 | 610408 | 737699 | 994514 | 1231066 | 1XXXX351 | —— | —— |
| Michigan | Detroit | —— | —— | 4762 | 8765 | 31639 | 212267 | 397654 | 749113 | 1184296 | —— | —— |
| Minnesota | Fort Snelling | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 6077 | 172173 | 435511 | —— | —— |
| Mississippi | Natchez | —— | 8850 | 40352 | 75448 | 136621 | 375651 | 606526 | 791305 | 834170 | —— | 436696 |
| Missouri | St. Genevieve | —— | —— | 20845 | 66577 | 140455 | 383702 | 682044 | 1182012 | 1715000 | —— | 114965 |
| Nebraska | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 28841 | 123000 | —— | —— |
| Nevada | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 6857 | 42491 | —— | —— |
| New Hampshire | Dover | 141899 | 183762 | 214360 | 244022 | 269328 | 284574 | 317976 | 326073 | 318300 | 158 | —— |
| New Jersey | Bergen | 184139 | 211949 | 245555 | 277426 | 320823 | 373306 | 489555 | 672035 | 905794 | 11423 | —— |
| New York | Albany | 340120 | 586756 | 959049 | 1372111 | 1918608 | 2428921 | 3097394 | 3880735 | 4364411 | 21324 | —— |
| North Carolina | Roanoke River | 393751 | 478103 | 555500 | 638829 | 737987 | 753419 | 869039 | 992622 | 1069614 | 100572 | 331081 |
| Ohio | Marietta | —— | 45365 | 230760 | 581295 | 937903 | 1519467 | 1980329 | 2339511 | 2662214 | —— | —— |
| Oregon | Astoria | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 13294 | 52465 | 90922 | —— | —— |
| Pennsylvania | Delaware Co. | 434373 | 602361 | 810091 | 1047507 | 1348233 | 1724033 | 2311786 | 2906115 | 3515993 | 3787 | —— |
| Rhode Island | Providence | 69110 | 69122 | 77031 | 83015 | 97199 | 108830 | 147545 | 174620 | 217356 | 952 | —— |
| South Carolina | Port Royal | 249073 | 245591 | 415115 | 402741 | 581185 | 594398 | 668507 | 703708 | 728000 | 107194 | 402541 |
| Tennessee | Fort Loudon | 35791 | 105602 | 261727 | 422761 | 681904 | 829210 | 1002717 | 1109801 | 1257983 | 3417 | 275784 |
| Texas | Matagorda | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 212592 | 604215 | 797500 | —— | 180682 |
| Vermont | Brattleboro | 85416 | 154465 | 217713 | 235749 | 280652 | 291948 | 314120 | 315098 | 330552 | —— | —— |
| Virginia | Jamestown | 748308 | 880200 | 974622 | 1065129 | 1211405 | 1239797 | 1421661 | 1246690 | 1224830 | }293427{ | 472516 |
| West Virginia | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 349628 | 445616 | 18371 | |
| Pr. du Chien | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 30945 | 305391 | 775881 | 1055167 | —— | —— | |
| Territories. | ||||||||||||
| Arizona | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 9,658 | —— | —— |
| Colorado | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 36,538 | 39,706 | —— | —— |
| Dakota | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 2,576 | 14,181 | —— | —— |
| Idaho | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 14,998 | —— | —— |
| Montana | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 20,594 | —— | —— |
| New Mexico | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 61,547 | 83,009 | 91,852 | —— | —— |
| Utah | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 11,380 | 40,699 | 86,786 | —— | —— |
| Washington | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 11,168 | 23,901 | —— | —— |
| Wyoming | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 9,118 | —— | —— |
| Dist. of Columbia | —— | —— | 14,093 | 24,023 | 33,039 | 39,834 | 43,712 | 51,687 | 75,080 | 131,706 | —— | —— |
| Total population in | 1790 | 3,929,827 |
| ” | 1800 | 5,305,937 |
| ” | 1810 | 7,239,814 |
| ” | 1820 | 9,638,131 |
| ” | 1830 | 12,866,020 |
| ” | 1840 | 17,069,453 |
| ” | 1850 | 23,191,876 |
| ” | 1860 | 31,747,514 |
| ” | 1870 | 38,538,180 |
| To which add Indians and others in Indian territory, not included in Census | 304,192 | |
| Grand total in 1870 | 38,842,372 | |
Note.—Returns of the colored population of the United States received at the Census Office show a total in all the States and Territories of 4,857,000, being an increase of 9.35-100 per cent. since 1860. The State of Georgia has the largest colored population; Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina and Louisiana follow next in order.
As shown in the last census (1870), the seven leading States rank, according to population, as follows: (1) New York; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) Ohio; (4) Illinois; (5) Missouri; (6) Indiana; (7) Massachusetts. Thus four out of the seven most populous States are “new States;” that is, they were not included in the original “thirteen.” In 1789, the four States at the head of the list were: (1) Virginia; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) North Carolina; (4) Massachusetts. At present, Virginia (if the State had not been divided) would have ranked in the seventh place, or next after Indiana. In absolute increase of inhabitants, Pennsylvania heads the list of the old States in the last decade: and the total population of said State is about equal to that of the thirteen States of Connecticut, Arkansas, West Virginia, Minnesota, Kansas, Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Florida, Delaware, Nebraska, Oregon and Nevada. The aggregate population of the six New England States of Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island falls considerably short of that of Pennsylvania. The States west of the Mississippi, including the Pacific States, have about one-sixth of the whole population of the United States.
The ratio of increase in population from 1790 to 1800 was 35.02 per cent.; from 1800 to 1810, 36.45 per cent.; from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per cent.; from 1820 to 1830, 33.49 per cent.; from 1830 to 1840, 32.67 per cent.; from 1840 to 1850, 38.57 per cent.; from 1850 to 1860, 37.75 per cent.; from 1860 to 1870, 22.34 per cent. Supposing the increase during this decade (since 1870) to be 30 per cent. there would be in 1875 nearly 45,000,000 inhabitants. We have reason to suppose it to be at least 35 per cent. This, in 1880, would give 52,437,192.
