INTRODUCTION.

151. The pulley forms a good introduction to the important subject of the mechanical powers. But before entering on the discussions of the next few chapters, it will be necessary for us to explain what is meant in mechanics by “work,” and by “energy,” which is the capacity for performing work, and we shall therefore include a short outline of this subject in the present lecture.

152. The pulley is a machine which is employed for the purpose of changing the direction of a force. We frequently wish to apply a force in a different direction from that in which it is convenient to exert it, and the pulley enables us to do so. We are not now speaking of these arrangements for increasing power in which pulleys play an important part; these will be considered in the next lecture: we at present refer only to change of direction. In fact, as we shall shortly see, some force is even wasted when the single fixed pulley is used, so that this machine certainly cannot be called a mechanical power.

153. The occasions upon which a single fixed pulley is used are numerous and familiar. Let us suppose a sack of corn has to be elevated from the lower to one of the upper stories of a building. It may of course be raised by a man who carries it, but he has to lift his own weight in addition to that of the sack, and therefore the quantity of exertion used is greater than absolutely necessary. But supposing there be a pulley at the top of the building over which a rope passes; then, if a man attach one end of the rope to the sack and pull the other, he raises the sack without raising his own weight. The pulley has thus provided the means by which the downward force has been changed in direction to an upward force.

154. The weights, ropes, and pulleys which are used in our windows for counterpoising the weight of the sash afford a very familiar instance of how a pulley changes the direction of a force. Here the downward force of the weight is changed by means of the pulley into an upward force, which nearly counterbalances the weight of the sash.

FRICTION BETWEEN A ROPE AND
AN IRON BAR.

155. Every one is familiar with the ordinary form of the pulley; it consists of a wheel capable of turning freely on its axle, and it has a groove in its circumference in which the rope lies. But why is it necessary to give the pulley this form? Why could not the direction of the rope be changed by simply passing it over a bar, as well as by the more complicated pulley? We shall best answer this question by actually trying the experiment, which we can do by means of the apparatus of Fig. 34 (see page 90). In this are shown two iron studs, g, h, 0"·6 diameter, and about 8" apart; over these passes a rope, which has a hook at each end. If I suspend a weight of 14 lbs. from one hook a, and pull the hook b, I can by exerting sufficient force raise the weight on a, but with this arrangement I am conscious of having to exert a very much larger force than would have been necessary to raise 14 lbs. by merely lifting it.

156. In order to study the question exactly, we shall ascertain what weight suspended from the hook b will suffice to raise a. I find that in order to raise 14 lbs. on a no less than 47 lbs. is necessary on b, consequently there is an enormous loss of force: more than two-thirds of the force which is exerted is expended uselessly. If instead of the 14 lbs. weight I substitute any other weight, I find the same result, viz. that more than three times its amount is necessary to raise it by means of the rope passing over the studs. If a labourer, in raising a sack, were to pass a rope over two bars such as these, then for every stone the sack weighed he would have to exert a force of more than three stones, and there would be a very extravagant loss of power.

157. Whence arises this loss? The rope in moving slides over the surface of the iron studs. Although these are quite smooth and polished, yet when there is a strain on the rope it presses closely upon them, and there is a certain amount of force necessary to make the rope slide along the iron. In other words, when I am trying to raise up 14 lbs. with this contrivance, I not only have its weight opposed to me, but also another force due to the sliding of the rope on the iron: this force is due to friction. Were it not for friction, a force of 14 lbs. on one hook would exactly balance 14 lbs. on the other, and the slightest addition to either weight would make it descend and raise the other. If, then, we are obliged to change the direction of a force, we must devise some means of doing so which does not require so great a sacrifice as the arrangement we have just used.

THE USE OF THE PULLEY.

158. We shall next inquire how it is that we are enabled to obviate friction by means of a pulley. It is evident we must provide an arrangement in which the rope shall not be required to slide upon an iron surface. This end is attained by the pulley, of which we may take i, Fig. 34, as an example. This represents a cast iron wheel 14" in diameter, with a V-shaped groove in its circumference to receive the rope: this wheel turns on a ? inch wrought iron axle, which is well oiled. The rope used is about 0"·25 in diameter.

159. From the hooks e, f at each end of the rope a 14 lb. weight is suspended. These equal weights balance each other. According to our former experiment with the studs, it would be necessary for me to treble the weight on one of these hooks in order to raise the other, but now I find that an additional 0·5 lb. placed on either hook causes it to descend and make the other ascend. This is a great improvement; 0·5 lb. now accomplishes what 33 lbs. was before required for. We have avoided a great deal of friction, but we have not got rid of it altogether, for 0·25 lb. is incompetent, when added to either weight, to make that weight descend.

160. To what is the improvement due? When the weight descends the rope does not slide upon the wheel, but it causes the wheel to revolve with it, consequently there is little or no friction at the circumference of the pulley; the friction is transferred to the axle. We still have some resistance to overcome, but for smooth oiled iron axles the friction is very small, hence the advantage of the pulley.

There is in every pulley a small loss of power from the force expended in bending the rope; this need not concern us at present, for with the pliable plaited rope that we have employed the effect is inappreciable, but with large strong ropes the loss becomes of importance. The amount of loss by using different kinds of ropes has been determined by careful experiments.

LARGE AND SMALL PULLEYS.

161. There is often a considerable advantage obtained by using large rather than small pulleys. The amount of force necessary to overcome friction varies inversely as the size of the pulley. We shall demonstrate this by actual experiment with the apparatus of Fig. 34. A small pulley k is attached to the large pulley i; they are in fact one piece, and turn together on the same axle. Hence if we first determine the friction with the rope over the large pulley, and then with the rope over the small pulley, any difference can only be due to the difference in size, as all the other circumstances are the same.

162. In making the experiments we must attend to the following point. The pulleys and the socket on which they are mounted weigh several pounds, and consequently there is friction on the axle arising from the weight of the pulleys, quite independently of any weights that may be placed on the hooks. We must then, if possible, evade the friction of the pulley itself, so that the amount of friction which is observed will be entirely due to the weights raised. This can be easily done. The rope and hooks being on the large pulley i, I find that 0·16 lb. attached to one of the hooks, e, is sufficient to overcome the friction of the pulley, and to make that hook descend and raise f. If therefore we leave 0·16 lb. on e, we may consider the friction due to the weight of the pulley, rope, and hooks as neutralized.

163. I now place a stone weight on each of the hooks e and f. The amount necessary to make the hook e and its load descend is 0·28 lb. This does not of course include the weight of 0·16 lb. already referred to. We see therefore that with the large pulley the amount of friction to be overcome in raising one stone is 0·28 lb.

164. Let us now perform precisely the same experiment with the small pulley. I transfer the same rope and hooks to k, and I find that 0·16 lb. is not now sufficient to overcome the friction of the pulley, but I add on weights until c will just descend, which occurs when the load reaches 0·95 lb. This weight is to be left on c as a counterpoise, for the reasons already pointed out. I place a stone weight on c and another on d, and you see that c will descend when it receives an additional load of 1·35 lbs.; this is therefore the amount of friction to be overcome when a stone weight is raised over the pulley k. 165. Let us compare these results with the dimensions of the pulleys. The proper way to measure the effective circumference of a pulley when carrying a certain rope is to measure the length of that rope which will just embrace it. The length measured in this way will of course depend to a certain extent upon the size of the rope. I find that the circumferences of the two pulleys are 43"·0 and 9"·5. The ratio of these is 4·5; the corresponding resistances from friction we have seen to be 0·28 lb. and 1·35 lbs. The larger of these quantities is 4·8 times the smaller. This number is very close to 4·5; we must not, as already explained, expect perfect accuracy in experiments in friction. In the present case the agreement is within the ¹/16th of the whole, and we may regard it as a proof of the law that the friction of a pulley is inversely proportional to its circumference.

166. It is easy to see the reason why friction should diminish when the size of the pulley is increased. The friction acts at the circumference of the axle about which the wheel turns; it is there present as a force tending to retard motion. Now the larger the wheel the greater will be the distance from the axis at which the force acts which overcomes the friction, and therefore the less need be the magnitude of the force. You will perhaps understand this better after the principle of the lever has been discussed.

167. We may deduce from these considerations the practical maxim that large pulleys are economical of power. This rule is well known to engineers; large pulleys should be used, not only for diminishing friction, but also to avoid loss of power by excessive bending of the rope. A rope is bent gradually around the circumference of a large pulley with far less force than is necessary to accommodate it to a smaller pulley: the rope also is apt to become injured by excessive bending. In coal pits the trucks laden with coal are hoisted to the surface by means of wire ropes which pass from the pit over a pulley into the engine-house: this pulley is of very large dimensions, for the reasons we have pointed out.

THE LAW OF FRICTION IN THE PULLEY.

168. I have here a wooden pulley 3"·5 in diameter; the hole is lined with brass, and the pulley turns very freely on an iron spindle. I place the rope and hooks upon the groove. Brass rubbing on iron has but little friction, and when 7 lbs. is placed on each hook, 0·5 lb. added to either will make it descend and raise up the other. Let 14 lbs. be placed on each hook, 0·5 lb. is no longer sufficient; 1 lb. is required: hence when the weight is doubled the friction is also doubled. Repeating the experiment with 21 lbs. and 28 lbs. on each side, the corresponding weights necessary to overcome friction are 1·5 lbs. and 2 lbs. In the four experiments the weights used are in the proportion 1, 2, 3, 4; and the forces necessary to overcome friction, 0·5 lb., 1 lb., 1·5 lbs., and 2 lbs., are in the same proportion. Hence the friction is proportional to the load.

WHEELS.

169. The wheel is one of the most simple and effective devices for overcoming friction. A sleigh is an admirable vehicle on a smooth surface such as ice, but it is totally unadapted for use on common roads; the reason being that the amount of friction between the sleigh and the road is so great that to move the sleigh the horse would have to exert a force which would be very great compared with the load he was drawing. But a vehicle properly mounted on wheels moves with the greatest ease along the road, for the circumference of the wheel does not slide, and consequently there is no friction between the wheel and the road; the wheel however turns on its axle, therefore there is sliding, and consequently friction, at the axle, but the axle and the wheel are properly fitted to each other, and the surfaces are lubricated with oil, so that the friction is extremely small.

170. With large wheels the amount of friction on the axle is less than with small wheels; other advantages of large wheels are that they do not sink much into depressions in the roads, and that they have also an increased facility in surmounting the innumerable small obstacles from which even the best road is not free.

171. When it is desired to make a pulley turn with extremely small friction, its axle, instead of revolving in fixed bearings, is mounted upon what are called friction wheels. A set of friction wheels is shown in the apparatus of Fig. 66: as the axle revolves, the friction between the axles and the wheels causes the latter to turn round with a comparatively slow motion; thus all the friction is transferred to the axles of the four friction wheels; these revolve in their bearings with extreme slowness, and consequently the pulley is but little affected by friction. The amount of friction in a pulley so mounted may be understood from the following experiment. A silk cord is placed on the pulley, and 1 lb. weight is attached to each of its ends: these of course balance. A number of fine wire hooks, each weighing 0·001 lb., are prepared, and it is found that when a weight of 0·004 lb. is attached to either side it is sufficient to overcome friction and set the weights in motion.

ENERGY.

172. In connection with the subject of friction, and also as introductory to the mechanical powers, the notion of “work,” or as it is more properly called “energy,” is of great importance. The meaning of this word as employed in mechanics will require a little consideration.

173. In ordinary language, whatever a man does that can cause fatigue, whether of body or mind, is called work. In mechanics, we mean by energy that particular kind of work which is directly or indirectly equivalent to raising weights.

174. Suppose a weight is lying on the floor and a stool is standing beside it: if a man raise the weight and place it upon the stool, the exertion that he expends is energy in the sense in which the word is used in mechanics. The amount of exertion necessary to place the weight upon the stool depends upon two things, the magnitude of the weight and the height of the stool. It is clear that both these things must be taken into account, for although we know the weight which is raised, we cannot tell the amount of exertion that will be required until we know the height through which it is to be raised; and if we know the height, we cannot appreciate the quantity of exertion until we know the weight.

175. The following plan has been adopted for expressing quantities of energy. The small amount of exertion necessary to raise 1 lb. avoirdupois through one British foot is taken as a standard, compared with which all other quantities of energy are estimated. This quantity of exertion is called in mechanics the unit of energy, and sometimes also the “foot-pound.”

176. If a weight of 1 lb. has to be raised through a height of 2 feet, or a weight of 2 lbs. through a height of 1 foot, it will be necessary to expend twice as much energy as would have raised a weight of 1 lb. through 1 foot, that is, 2 foot-pounds.

If a weight of 5 lbs. had to be raised from the floor up to a stool 3 feet high, how many units of energy would be required? To raise 5 lbs. through 1 foot requires 5 foot-pounds, and the process must be again repeated twice before the weight arrive at the top of the stool. For the whole operation 15 foot-pounds will therefore be necessary.

If 100 lbs. be raised through 20 feet, 100 foot-pounds of energy is required for the first foot, the same for the second, third, &c., up to the twentieth, making a total of 2,000 foot-pounds.

Here is a practical question for the sake of illustration. Which would it be preferable to hoist, by a rope passing over a single fixed pulley, a trunk weighing 40 lbs. to a height of 20 feet, or a trunk weighing 50 lbs. to a height of 15 feet? We shall find how much energy would be necessary in each case: 40 times 20 is 800; therefore in the first case the energy would be 800 foot-pounds. But 50 times 15 is 750; therefore the amount of work, in the second case, is only 750 lbs. Hence it is less exertion to carry 50 lbs. up 15 feet than 40 lbs. up 20 feet.

177. The rate of working of every source of energy, whether it lie in the muscles of men or other animals, in water-wheels, steam-engines, or other prime movers, is to be measured by the number of foot-pounds produced in the unit of time.

The power of a steam-engine is defined by its equivalent in horse-power. For example, it is meant that a steam-engine of 3 horse-power, could, when working for an hour, do as much work as 3 horses could do when working for the same time. The power of a horse is, however, an uncertain quantity, differing in different animals and not quite uniform in the same individual; accordingly the selection of this measure for the efficiency of the steam-engine is inconvenient. We replace it by a convenient standard horse-power, which is, however, a good deal larger than that continuously obtainable from any ordinary horse. A one horse-power steam-engine is capable of accomplishing 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.

178. We shall illustrate the numerical calculation of horse-power by an example: if a mine be 1,000 feet deep, how much water per minute would a 50 horse-power engine be capable of raising to the surface? The engine would yield 50×33,000 units of work per minute, but the weight has to be raised 1,000 feet, consequently the number of pounds of water raised per minute is

179. We shall apply the principle of work to the consideration of the pulley already described (p. 90). In order to raise the weight of 14 lbs., it is necessary that the rope to which the power is applied should be pulled downwards by a force of 15 lbs., the extra pound being on account of the friction. To fix our ideas, we shall suppose the 14 lbs. to be raised 1 foot; to lift this load directly, without the intervention of the pulley, 14 foot-pounds would be necessary, but when it is raised by means of the pulley, 15, foot-pounds are necessary. Hence there is an absolute loss of ¹/15th of the energy when the pulley is used. If a steam-engine of 1 horse-power were employed in raising weights by a rope passing over a pulley similar to that on which we have experimented, only ¹4/15ths of the work would be usefully employed; but we find

The engine would therefore perform 30,800 foot-pounds of useful work per minute.

180. The effect of friction on a pulley, or on any other machine, is always to waste energy. To perform a piece of work directly requires a certain number of foot-pounds, while to do it by a machine requires more, on account of the loss by friction. This may at first sight appear somewhat paradoxical, as it is well known that, by levers, pulleys, &c., an enormous mechanical advantage may be gained. This subject will be fully explained in the next and following lectures, which relate to the mechanical powers.

181. We shall conclude with a few observations on a point of the greatest importance. We have seen a case where 15 foot-pounds of energy only accomplished 14 foot-pounds of work, and thus 1 foot-pound appeared to be lost. We say that this was expended upon the friction; but what is the friction? The axle is gradually worn away by rubbing in its bearings, and, if it be not properly oiled, it becomes heated. The amount of energy that seems to disappear is partly expended in grinding down the axle, and is partly transformed into heat; it is thus not really lost, but unfortunately assumes a form which we do not require and in which it is rather injurious than otherwise. Indeed we know that energy cannot be destroyed, however it may be transformed; if it disappear in one shape, it is only to reappear in another. A so-called loss of energy by friction only means a diversion of a part of the work to some purpose other than that which we wish to accomplish. It has long been known that matter is indestructible: it is now equally certain that the same may be asserted of energy.