THE RECTANGULAR KEEP, c. 1100-1200

We have seen that the Shell Keep was a logical sequence in the development of a castle which had been originally erected upon the Motte and Bailey plan, and the question will naturally suggest itself as to the nature of Castles which the Normans built in the twelfth century upon a site not previously occupied. This was the Rectangular Keep with its fortified enclosure, answering approximately to the Shell Keep and the bailey.

Rectangular Keeps had been prominent in French fortifications for at least thirty years before the Norman Conquest, but the introduction of the defence into England was slow and protracted. Only two examples are extant which preceded the death of William I., namely, the White Tower of London, and the Keep at Colchester. This type of castle has come to be associated with the Normans, to the practical exclusion of the much greater number of Motte and Bailey and Shell Keep fortalices which are equally connected with their occupation; probably the dignified appearance of the massive Keep, with its impressive adjuncts and surroundings, are responsible for the popular belief.

The Keep itself was essentially a new feature in the art of fortification, a medieval method of resisting the special form of attack prevailing at that period. The enclosure was directly derived from the rectangular castra of Roman times, descended through the Anglo-Saxon burh and the Norman bailey. Probably of all the military structures which the world has seen, the Rectangular Keep is the grandest in impressive appearance and dimensions, combined as it is with simplicity of outline; it is also the most durable in workmanship by its adamantine strength and structural proportions. The walls are generally from 8 to 14 feet thick, and, at the base, sometimes even 20 feet, while a few still standing are reputed to have the ground floor solid. The enormous thickness of walls in medieval buildings must not always be taken as an indication of strength; in a large number of cases they consist of two walls at some distance apart, with the intermediate space filled in with rubble and a certain amount of mortar, generally inferior in quality, so that at times when the outer casing is pierced, the interior core pours out through the opening like grain from a sack. They afforded, however, facilities for the construction of passages in the wall itself, and also for small chambers, while the exterior portion of the wall was invariably strengthened by flat pilaster buttresses. The entrances to these Keeps were usually on the first floor, access being gained by means of a ladder or wooden gangway, the doorway being of small dimensions. A series of narrow vertical slits in the walls, splayed out into embrasures inside, served the purpose of windows, and also as oillets or arbalesteria, for the discharge of arrows and bolts.

Later examples of the Keep are furnished with fore buildings adapted to protect the vulnerable portion, the entrance. These fore buildings were especially designed to present unusual difficulties of penetration; drawbridges, meurtriers, oubliettes, and other devices being opposed to intruders, while passages leading to every spot except those desired were constructed in the walls to mislead and divert attacks from inrushing assailants. One of the best examples is that at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, built c. 1172; it has two towers and contains a chapel, the entrance to the Keep itself being from the roof which forms an open platform.

But by far the best example of a forebuilding is to be found at Dover, standing against the eastern face of the great Keep. It is so designed that three separate protections are afforded to the stairway leading into the Keep, the base, centre, and landing stage having each a separate tower for its defence. The entrance upon the first floor is barred by a door of formidable thickness and great strength; upon the first floor occurs the Chapel, and a view into it is obtained from the stairway, while a small chapel or oratory is placed overhead upon the second floor. A well, now disused, formerly had its opening in the third floor. The actual entrance to the Keep occurs upon the second floor, although an ancient one, now blocked up, opened to it from the first floor.

Dover Castle, from its commanding position at the narrowest part of the English Channel, has for many centuries occupied one of the most prominent positions among the fortresses of England. It stands upon a chalk knoll to the east of the town, and by nature and art is practically severed from the adjacent land, whether high or low. From traces, which are now almost entirely obliterated, it is concluded that a Celtic defence primarily existed upon the summit; this was followed after A.D. 42 by a Roman station, the chief remains of which are to-day embodied in the well-known Pharos, a companion probably to that erected in A.D. 40 by Caligula upon the Gallic shore. Traces of the Roman occupation, apart from the lighthouse, are very scanty, and are overshadowed by the Saxon work, although it is open to doubt whether the development of the latter was carried out to any elaborate extent.

It is with the Norman period that the history proper of the Castle commences. It surrendered without opposition to the Conqueror, who added to the defences, and it was able to resist a sharp attack upon it in 1074 when the men of Kent rose against William. Shortly after this the town was surrounded by walls.

Although Dover was rightly considered as the key of England, the fortress is not connected with many of the great events which have gone to make the history of England. It has always been in the possession of the Crown and governed by a Constable. Hubert de Burgh defended it against the Dauphin in the time of King John, and, although Louis built many trebuchets and imported minor petraries from France, these, combined with beffrois, sows, and rams, failed to shake his determined defence. Dover appears to have played but little part in subsequent history, probably through its falling into ruin by neglect during the "Wars of the Roses" and of the great Rebellion.

The Keep is a fine example, dating from 1182, and essentially Norman; it is nearly 100 feet square, and rises to a height of 95 feet. It presents a commanding feature from the sea as the summit is nearly 500 feet above high water. The usual Norman pilaster buttresses are apparent at the angles and in the centres of three of the faces. The Keep walls are of most unusual thickness, in parts exceeding 20 feet, but these are honeycombed by a number of small chambers and passages. Only loopholes admit light to the lower stage, the more important rooms being upon the second floor. The Keep is provided with two wells, not contained, as usual, in the great transverse wall which divides the building into two distinct portions, but in the thickness of the eastern wall.

Subsequent defences have taken the form of massive curtains defending the enceinte, which encloses an area of 35 acres, a special feature being the large number of towers, round-fronted or square, which are liberally scattered along it. The general shape now developed may claim to be that of the Concentric Fortress, although it is classified among the Rectangular Keeps. Its adaptation to up-to-date requirements has in many cases led to the obliteration of many ancient features formerly distinguishing it; these, although undoubtedly justifiable, are to be regretted from the antiquarian point of view.

In order to convey an idea of the internal economy of a Keep and the disposition of the various apartments the diagram appearing on p. 100 may be of use. It shows the five successive floors of Hedingham Keep, Essex, which dates from about 1140. Upon the ground floor plan the great thickness of the walls, about 12 feet, is plainly apparent with the narrow embrasures giving light. At the base the walls batter slightly for a few feet, not shown on plan. The well-stair commences in the basement and extends to all the floors. The first floor or entrance story has a small round-headed doorway, the arch of which is ornamented with zigzag moulding; steps now lead up the face of the wall to it, but formerly it opened from a forebuilding of which traces still remain. Here the honeycombing of the walls commences which is so marked a feature in Keeps. The embrasures have very narrow openings externally but wider than on the ground floor. The central dividing wall here is pierced by an arch and hence shown dotted in plan. On the second floor is the great Hall of Audience; across the centre is built a remarkably fine arch carried upon Norman shafts with scollop capitals and moulded bases. The fireplace and also the window openings have zigzag mouldings around the circular heads. The upper part of this room has a gallery running round it shown as the third floor plan; the windows are doubled by a dividing pier and openings admit of a view into the Audience Chamber. Above is the fourth floor low in height, with zigzag moulding round the external window heads. Over this story is the flat roof and the turrets at the corners, two of which still remain. The floors and the roof were all supported upon wooden beams.

Hedingham Castle was the residence of the de Vere family for about six centuries. King John besieged and captured it in 1216, but it underwent no subsequent siege. The outer fortifications were demolished in the reign of Elizabeth and only the Keep remains at the present time.

The ramparts upon the summit of a Rectangular Keep were carried upon the walls themselves, the latter, as a rule, being sufficiently thick for the purpose without corbelling outwards. The parapet was either continuous or embattled. A roof, at times covered with lead, was carried over the central opening, and the uppermost floors were invariably borne upon massive wooden joists. The lowest floor was generally free from timber, being constructed of masonry carried upon the arches of a crypt, but in those cases where the whole structure was borne upon a solid foundation of masonry spread upon the entire area of the site, this might be dispensed with. Some existing crypts are not coeval with the building, but were added at a later date, that at Richmond, for example, dates from the Decorated period. As a general rule the Keep contained a well which was sunk through the foundations and carried upwards in the central dividing wall to the various floors, but examples occur where it is placed in the enclosure. Most Keeps were furnished with an oratory or private chapel, one of the most famous being that in the Tower of London, while those at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Colchester, and Guildford are well known. In the later type of Keep this feature is absent, the tendency being to erect all buildings used during times of peace within the enclosure.The reduction of such a Keep as we have outlined was almost impossible in the Medieval age except by famine; the outer minor defences, however, were not proof against the missiles of the trebuchet, onager, and other petraries, and would invariably succumb. But with regard to the massive structure of the Keep, the largest stones could be hurled with but small results; and the few narrow openings in its walls presented but meagre opportunities for a successful admission of the falarica, quarrel, or arrow. To carry it by direct assault would be at all times a forlorn hope.

We thus see that the Rectangular Keep was essentially a structure for passive defence; and during the time that provisions lasted it was practically impregnable. Built upon the living rock, as they generally were, it was an impossibility to mine them; even if attempted, mine could be met with counter-mine, and the ram and sow might in vain essay to make any impression upon such solid masonry. At the same time the garrison was to a certain extent incapable of inflicting much damage upon the besiegers except in case of assault; the steep shingle roof afforded no place for a military engine, and but scanty facilities for storage of rocks, stones, beams, and other weighty missiles for dropping upon assailants. The narrow entrance into the Keep prevented an effective sortie, and, if attempted, was a source of danger in retreat. During the three months spent by King John, in 1215, before the Keep at Rochester, his military engines produced practically no result upon it, but an effective mine succeeded in bringing down the masonry of one of the lower angles, and eventually part of the tower itself.

The great advantages perceivable in a solid Keep were so apparent that the addition of this feature to many castles of the Motte and Bailey pattern was deemed advisable, but only in a few places did the Keep stand upon the mound; Nottingham is an exception, but in nearly all other examples they occupied new sites, the tremendous weight of the structure rendering it inadvisable to trust it in that position. The superiority of the Keep over the Motte and Bailey Castle was well exemplified in 1102, when Robert of Bellesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, broke into rebellion against King Henry I. He possessed a fortress of the Motte and Bailey type at Quatford on the Severn, but this "Devil of Bellesme," as he was termed, had no confidence in his father's fortress, and transferred the stones higher up the river where, in the short period of twelve months, he built the imposing Keep whose massive remains, although sadly shattered at the time of the Commonwealth, still excite our admiration. It is erected upon a rocky site, protected by ravines upon three sides, and overhanging the river Severn upon the fourth. When besieged by the King it withstood all the efforts of the formidable petraries brought to bear upon it, and appears to have been practically uninjured when, at the expiration of a month, a portion of the garrison became disaffected by reason of the threatening nature of the royal messages, and managed to secure its surrender.

When a Keep was added to a castle of the Motte and Bailey type there does not appear to have been any regular rule as to its position. At Guildford it was erected upon the motte (though a little way down the slope), and also at Nottingham, Pickering, and York; at Clun in Shropshire the Keep was built partly on the motte, occupying the eastern slope, the mound apparently bearing a defence of the Shell Keep pattern at the same time. Gloucester Castle has been entirely destroyed in order to make room for a modern prison, but from existing records we learn that the Keep was an addition, occupying the centre of the former bailey, while the building at Newcastle also stood distinct from the mound. The Keep at Oxford stands upon the enceinte at some distance from the Shell Keep, while at Rochester and Canterbury the new additions were erected outside the original castle.

In the reign of the Conqueror and his immediate descendants, the rapid building of castles for overawing the defeated Saxons was a matter of Crown policy, but with the settlement of the Kingdom, and the rise into power of Norman nobles waxing rich and powerful upon their estates, restrictions became imperative if the royal prerogatives were not to be set at nought. Consequently, special licences to build and crenellate had to be obtained before erecting, or adding to the existing defences of, a castle, and the rigorous insistence upon this law was readily recognised and maintained by all strong rulers of the kingdom. When, however, a weak monarch came to the throne, or internal dissensions occurred, the Norman barons invariably seized the opportunity thus afforded, and a large increase of these fortalices sprang into existence. The most remarkable example was during the eighteen years of strife wherein King Stephen was struggling for his crown with the forces of Queen Maud. In order to propitiate the nobles and secure their services, the King gave licences with a reckless indifference to consequences, and many scores of castles were erected under these permissions, but a still greater number with no licence at all. These latter became known as "adulterine" or spurious castles; the total number built during this period of anarchy is said to have been more than one thousand, but more modern computation places the number at about seven hundred. Stephen, when too late, perceived the mischief attending the multiplication of these citadels, and attempted to reduce the evil by destroying those belonging to the clergy. The essay proved to be a mistake, and during the disorder that ensued, the land became a prey to anarchy of the most violent kind, each baron or leader of mercenaries doing that which was right in his own eyes, and retreating to the safe precincts of his castle when in difficulties.

Of the nature of these unlicensed strongholds there is considerable doubt, but a great probability exists that they were of very rapid construction and, therefore, not of the Rectangular Keep type, but of the Motte and Bailey, or of the Shell Keep pattern. That a large amount of time had been spent in their erection seems to be negatived by the fact that upon the accession of Henry II. the great majority of "adulterine" castles were destroyed in the course of a few months. This would have been impossible if solid masonry erections were in question, but hastily improvised defences built by forced, and therefore, probably, unskilled labour, would not present great difficulties. In all likelihood a great number of the earthworks which occur in England, and have not been assigned to any particular date, may owe their origin to this disturbed period, especially those of the Motte and Bailey type. Upon the whole, we can hardly look upon the reign of King Stephen as a period distinguished by an advance in the art of castle-building, but rather as one of temporary retrogression to elementary types.

With the advent of the second half of the twelfth century the Castle began to show in many details the influence of the Early English style of architecture, though ornamentation is singularly rare in early castellation compared with the lavish wealth bestowed at the same time upon ecclesiastical buildings. The Norman style was still adhered to in the main outlines, but the external pilasters developed to such an extent that they became buttresses, as at Clun and Dover, the masonry workmanship improved, local stone came more into use, and internal decorations, such as ribs to the vaulting, began to be introduced. It is not uncommon to find the dog-tooth ornament employed in conjunction with contemporary work in the Norman style, but so long as the Rectangular Keep remained, the internal arrangements became, as it were, stereotyped, and were strictly adhered to. The latest styles of Rectangular Keeps carried but few, if any, suggestions of Norman architecture as they trended upon the Early English periods; thus Fonmon Castle in Glamorganshire, and Penhow in Monmouthshire, exhibited no traces of pilaster buttresses, and other features so strongly marked in earlier examples.

Bamborough Castle, grim, grey, and imposing, by its vastness and massive proportions, stands upon a rocky height of igneous formation on the coast of Northumberland. It is by nature a promontory fortress, and as such was seized by Ida and his Angles in 547, and who thence extended his sway over what subsequently became the kingdom of Bernicia. The castle is mentioned in 774, and was twice taken by the Danes. In 1095 the dramatic siege occurred with which Bamborough will be for ever associated. William Rufus besieged it with a formidable army, but such was the reputation of its impregnability that he would not venture upon storming it. He, therefore, had recourse to a siege, and one great beffroi he raised was so formidable that it is mentioned by name, malvoisin; this he advanced to the walls, and so closely that conversation could easily be exchanged between the rival combatants. The rebel baron, de Mowbray, left the Castle in charge of his wife, with the intention of procuring assistance, but was captured in an attempt upon Newcastle. By the King's orders he was brought to Bamborough and exposed to the gaze of the garrison: upon a royal threat to put out the eyes of his captive unless the Castle surrendered at once, the heroic Matilda de l'Aigle, who had continued the defence with the utmost success, admitted the King's forces. De Mowbray was imprisoned, but in his old age was permitted to enter the monastery of St. Alban, where he died.

Rufus appointed Eustace Fitz-John of Alnwick as castellan, and the Castle, in the time of Stephen, successfully resisted an inroad of David, King of Scotland. In 1164 the great Keep was erected by Henry II., and from that period the Constableship of Bamborough became a royal appointment.

During the Wars of the Roses, Bamborough played an important part. First in Yorkist possession it was captured by Queen Margaret, who placed a garrison of three hundred men there under the Duke of Somerset. Edward IV. with ten thousand men besieged Alnwick, Bamborough, and Dunstanburgh, the Kingmaker in person conducting the operations. The Castle was surrendered, and Sir Ralph Grey was left in charge, but betrayed his trust and admitted Margaret in 1463. In 1464 he was surrounded by Warwick's army, and a fierce bombardment was maintained which did enormous damage, Grey being injured by one of the falling towers; he recovered, however, but was subsequently executed at Doncaster. In the sixteenth century the Castle fell into disrepair, but in 1757 a partial restoration occurred, and subsequently portions of it were turned into a school for girls; afterwards, however, it was purchased by the late Lord Armstrong.

There are three wards within the enceinte of the Castle which encloses about 5 acres of land, the middle ward and that to the east being at one time covered by the buildings of the ancient town. The great Keep is similar to those at Dover and London, but originally possessed only two stories. It is erected upon a solid mass of masonry, and the entrance leads by a passage in the thickness of the wall into the second story. There is no forebuilding as the Keep is of a date anterior to their introduction. The lower part of the walls is about 11 feet thick, and in the basement occurs the well over which appears a great vaulted hall.

Rochester Castle.—The two great Royal Castles in Kent were those at Canterbury and Rochester, and of these Rochester was the more important and boasts of a richer history. The Keeps are practically all that remain of each, and Rochester again asserts the pre-eminence in respect to the importance of present remains. The site had been previously occupied by the Romans and the Saxons when, immediately subsequent to the Conquest, a Motte and Bailey Castle was reared by the Normans, followed shortly afterwards by a massive encircling wall, enclosing an area measuring about 160 yards long by 130 yards broad. A portion of this wall was erected close to the river, and a deep ditch protected the remaining three sides.

It was thus, at the demise of the Conqueror, a very strong fortress, and that much-hated half-brother of the late King, Bishop Odo of Bayeux, seized it, but was besieged and captured by Rufus after a resistance of six weeks. He was sent to Tonbridge Castle and subsequently liberated. In 1126 Henry I. granted the Constableship of the Castle to Walter de Corbeuil, Archbishop of Canterbury, and permitted him to erect a tower, probably the existing Keep.

In 1215, when in the possession of William d'Albini, who was acting for the Barons, King John sat down before the Castle with a formidable array of trebuchets, and battered it for three long months. Apparently he had greater success by undermining than by missile-throwing, the tower at the south-east angle being partially brought down by a mine, together with other parts of the chief defences. This extensive damage probably helped it to fall into the hands of the Dauphin the next year. In 1264 it resisted a vigorous assault from the forces of Simon de Montfort, and during the Wat Tyler rebellion was besieged and partially captured.

Edward IV. repaired it, but subsequently it fell into a state of neglect, and has not seen any military operations since. It is now in the possession of the Corporation of Rochester, and used as a place of public recreation.

The great Keep is naturally the chief object of interest; it is 113 feet in height, and about 70 feet square. The thickness of its walls varies from 12 feet at the base to 10 feet at the top, where the angle turrets rise over a dozen feet above the main battlements. It is divided, like the Tower of London, into two portions by a transverse wall rising to the total height, and carrying in its centre the main shaft of the Castle well, which was arranged to deliver water at every floor. The usual flat pilasters appear upon the external walls, and the two lower stories are pierced by loopholes only. A forebuilding with the usual complicated contrivances protects the main entrance. The aspect of the venerable Keep, conjoined to the tower and turrets of the adjacent Cathedral, form a delightful combination of the military and ecclesiastical architecture of former ages.

Richmond Castle.—The Castle of Richmond is beautifully situated upon high ground overlooking the river Swale, in Yorkshire, but, although the fortunes of the Castle extend to the time of the Conquest, and many noble families are connected with its history, it has played no important part whatever in the making of history, either in its own country or that of England. It has never seen an arrow launched in anger, or received a ball from opposing ordnance. It was erected by Alan Fergeant, who in 1071 commenced operations and encircled the triangular site with a curtain wall. The Keep was erected by his brother about the year 1100; it is approximately 50 feet square and 100 feet high, with the usual Norman pilasters, but deeper than formerly, strengthening the fronts and angles, while each of the latter bears a turret of two stages upon the summit. The only entrance is by a door on the south face, from which a narrow stairway leads to the floor above. The ground floor was vaulted in the reign of Edward I., the same as that at Newcastle. A chapel was built, about 1278, adjacent to it, by John, Earl of Richmond, who was killed at Lyons in 1304, and various other domestic buildings occur near it. A circular barbican protects the main entrance to the Castle, while in the south-east angle of the enceinte wall an imposing rectangular tower has been built, containing the remains of an ancient postern.