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of food are thoroughly discussed in Essentials of Cookery, Part 2, and in that discussion canning is mentioned as one of the means of preserving food or preventing it from spoiling. However, when canning does not prove effective, it is because undesirable bacteria are present in the food. Either they have not been destroyed by the canning process or they have been allowed to enter before the jar was closed, and have then developed to such an extent as to cause the food to spoil. Odors, flavors, and gases result from the putrefaction, fermentation, or molding caused by these bacteria, and these make the foods offensive or harmful, or perhaps both.

11. PREVENTING CANNED FOODS FROM SPOILING.--From what has just been said, it will be seen that the success of canning depends entirely on destroying harmful micro-organisms that are present in the food and preventing those present in the air from entering the jars in which the food is placed.

Some foods are more difficult to keep than others, because bacteria act on them more readily and the foods themselves contain nothing that prevents their growth. Among such foods are meat, fish, peas, corn, beans, and meat soups. On the other hand, some foods contain acids that prevent the growth of bacteria, and these keep easily. Among these are rhubarb, cranberries, and green gooseberries. However, foods that keep easily are few, and in most cases extreme care in the process of canning must be exercised.

12. While warmth is necessary for bacterial growth, very high temperatures will destroy or retard it. In canning, a temperature as high as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or boiling point, retards the growth of active bacteria, but retarding their growth is not sufficient. They must be rendered inactive. To do this requires either a higher temperature than boiling point or long continued cooking at 212 degrees. Spores are a protective form that many kinds of bacteria assume under unfavorable conditions. They are very difficult to kill, and unless they are completely destroyed in the canning process, they will develop into active bacteria when conditions again become favorable. The result of the spore development is the spoiling of the food.

13. Other things besides the application of heat assist in the keeping of canned food, as, for example, the acids of the fruits and vegetables themselves, as has been mentioned. The use of sugar also assists; the greater the quantity of sugar in solution the easier it will be to keep the food. This is proved in the case of jams and jellies, which will keep without being sealed tight or put into jars immediately after cooking. Salt helps to keep vegetables that are canned, and, in making butters, conserves, and pickles, the spices and vinegars used help to protect the foods from bacterial action. However, none of these things are essential to the keeping of any sterile food, by which is meant food in which all bacteria or sources of bacteria have been rendered inactive by the application of sufficient heat.

14. CANNING PRESERVATIVES.--Numerous compounds, usually in the form of powders, are advertised as being useful for keeping canned foods from spoiling. None of them should be used, however, because they are unnecessary. If the work of canning is carefully and effectively done, good foods will keep perfectly without the addition of a preservative. The pure-food laws of the United States and of many of the states themselves forbid the use of some preservatives because of their harmful effect on the human system. For this reason, to say nothing of the extra expense that would be incurred in their use, such preservatives may well be left alone.

GENERAL EQUIPMENT FOR CANNING

15. The equipment required for canning depends on two things: the quantity of food to be canned at one time and, since there are several canning methods in use, the canning method that is to be employed.

Various kinds of elaborate equipment have been devised to make the work of canning easy as well as effective. However, it is possible to do excellent work with simple equipment, and if the matter of expense must be considered there should be no hesitation about choosing the simplest and least expensive and doing the work in the best possible way with it. It is important also that utensils already included in the household equipment be improvised to meet the needs of the canning season as far as possible.

16. Whatever the canning method that is to be followed may be, there are a number of utensils and containers that go to make up the general equipment that is required. Familiarity with such an equipment is extremely necessary for correct results in canning, and for this reason the general equipment is discussed here in detail. The special equipment needed for each of the canning methods, however, is not taken up until the method is considered. In giving this general equipment, mention is made of some utensils that are convenient but not absolutely necessary. Any unnecessary, but convenient, part of a canning equipment should therefore be chosen with a view to its labor-saving qualities and its expense. A device that will make the keeping of canned foods more certain and prevent loss may be a valuable purchase; still, that which makes for greater convenience, but not absolute saving, need not be considered a necessity.

17. VESSELS FOR CANNING.--The pots, kettles, and pans in ordinary use in the kitchen for cooking purposes are usually satisfactory for the canning of foods. Those made of tin or iron, however, are not so good as enameled ones or those made of other metals, such as aluminum. Especially is this true of utensils used for the canning of acid fruits or vegetables, because, if such food remains in contact with tin or iron for more than a few minutes, the acid will corrode the surface sufficiently to give the food a bad or metallic taste. In addition, such utensils often give the food a dark color. If enameled kettles are used for the cooking of foods that are to be canned, it is important that the surface be perfectly smooth and unbroken. Otherwise, it will be difficult to prevent burning; besides, chips of the enamel are liable to get into the food. Kettles for the cooking of fruits with sirup should be flat and have a broad surface. Fruit is not so likely to crush in such kettles as in kettles that are deep and have a small surface.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

18. KNIVES, SPOONS AND OTHER SMALL UTENSILS.--Many of the small utensils in a kitchen equipment are practically indispensable for canning purposes. Thus, for paring fruits and vegetables and cutting out cores, blossoms, and stem ends or any defective spots, nothing is more satisfactory than a sharp paring knife with a good point. For paring acid fruits, though, a plated knife is not so likely to cause discoloring as a common steel knife. There are, however, other useful implements for special work, such as the strawberry huller, Fig. 1, for removing the stems of strawberries, and the peach pitter, Fig. 2, [Illustration: FIG. 2] for removing the stones from clingstone peaches. For placing the food to be canned into jars, both forks and large spoons are necessities. A large spoon with holes or slits in the bowl is convenient for picking fruits and vegetables out of a kettle when no liquid is desired, as well as for skimming a kettle of fruit. For packing foods into jars, a long-handled spoon with a small bowl is convenient. Still another useful small utensil is a short, wide funnel that may be inserted into the mouth of a jar and thus permit the food to be dipped or poured into it without being spilled.

19. DEVICES FOR MEASURING.--Accurate measures are necessary in canning; in fact, some of the work cannot be done satisfactorily without them. A half-pint measuring cup and a quart measure with the cups marked on it are very satisfactory for making all measures.

Scales are often convenient, too. For measuring dry materials, they are always more accurate than measures. Many canning proportions and recipes call for the measurement of the ingredients by weight rather than by measure. When this is the case and a pair of scales is not convenient, it is almost impossible to be certain that the proportions are correct. For instance, if a recipe calls for a pound of sugar and an equal amount of fruit, a measuring cup will in no way indicate the correct quantity.

20. COLANDER AND WIRE STRAINER.--For the cleansing of fruits and vegetables that are to be canned, a colander is of great assistance; also, if a large wire strainer is purchased, it may be used as a sieve and for scalding and blanching, steps in canning that are explained later.

21. GLASS JARS.--For household canning, the most acceptable containers for food are glass jars that may be closed air-tight with jar rubbers and tops. Use is sometimes made of bottles, jars, and cans of various kinds that happen to be at hand, but never should they be employed unless they can be fitted with covers and made positively air-tight. Like utensils, the glass jars that are a part of the household supply should be used from year to year, if possible, but not at the loss of material. Such loss, however, will depend on the proper sealing of the jars, provided everything up to that point has been correctly done. All jars should be carefully inspected before they are used, because imperfect or broken edges are often responsible for the spoiling of food.

In purchasing glass jars, only what are known as first quality should be selected. Cheap jars are likely to be seconds and will not prove so satisfactory. Glass jars may be purchased in sizes that hold from 1/2 pint to 2 quarts. If possible, food should be canned in the size of jar that best suits the number of persons to be served.

If the family consists of two, pint jars will hold even more than may be used at one time, while if the family is large the contents of a quart jar may not be sufficient.

22. Numerous types of glass jars are to be had. Some of them are more convenient than others and may be made air-tight more easily. These two features are the most important to consider in making a selection. Jars that close with difficulty, especially if the tops screw on, are not likely to keep food successfully because the bacteria in the air will have a chance to enter and thus cause the food to spoil.

Glass jars used for canning foods have improved with canning methods. The old-style jars had a groove into which the cover fit, and melted sealing wax or rosin was poured into the space surrounding the cover. Later came the screw-top jar shown in Fig. 3. This type of jar has been extensively used with excellent results. Both the mouth of this jar and the jar top, which is made of metal, usually zinc, lined with glass or porcelain, have threads that match, and the jar is sealed by placing the jar rubber over the top, or ridge, of the jar and then screwing the jar top firmly in place. Such jars, however, are more difficult to make air-tight than some of the newer types. One of these jars is illustrated in Fig. 4. It is provided with a glass cover that fits on the ridge of the jar and a metal clasp that serves to hold the cover in place and to make the jar air-tight after a rubber is placed in position. Another convenient and simple type of glass jar, known as the automatic seal top, has a metal cover with a rubber attached.

Another improvement in jars is that the opening has been enlarged so that large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, tomatoes, etc., can be packed into them whole. With such wide-mouthed jars, it is easier to pack the contents in an orderly manner and thus improve the appearance of the product. Besides, it is a simpler matter to clean such a jar than one that has a small opening.

23. JAR TOPS AND COVERS.--While the tops, or covers, for glass jars are made of both metal and glass, as has been stated, the glass tops meet with most favor. Of course, they are breakable, but they are even more durable than metal tops, which are usually rendered less effective by the bending they undergo when they are removed from the jar. Covers made of zinc are being rapidly abandoned, and it has been proved that the fewer the grooves and the simpler the cover, the more carefully and successfully can it be cleaned. For safety, glass tops that have become chipped or nicked on the edges that fit the jar should be replaced by perfect ones. The covers for automatic-seal jars must be pierced before they can be removed, and this necessitates a new supply for each canning. If there is any question about the first-class condition of jar covers, whether of metal or glass, tops that are perfect should be provided.

24. JAR RUBBERS.--Jar rubbers are required with jar tops to seal jars air-tight. Before they are used, they should be tested in the manner shown in Fig. 5. Good jar rubbers will return to their original shape after being stretched. Such rubbers should be rather soft and elastic, and they should fit the jars perfectly and lie down flat when adjusted. A new supply of rubbers should be purchased each canning season, because rubber deteriorates as it grows old. Rubbers of good quality will stand boiling for 5 hours without being affected, but when they have become stiff and hard from age it is sometimes impossible to make jars air-tight. Occasionally, two old rubbers that are comparatively soft may be used in place of a new one, and sometimes old rubbers are dipped in paraffin and then used. However, if there is any difficulty in sealing jars properly with rubbers so treated, they should be discarded and good ones used.

25. TIN CANS.--For household canning, tin cans are not so convenient as glass jars, but in spite of this they are coming into extensive use. The kind that may be used without any special equipment has a tin lid that fits into a groove and is fastened in place with rosin or sealing wax. Some cans, however, require that the lids be soldered in place. While soldering requires special equipment, this method of making the cans air-tight is the best, and it is employed where considerable canning is done, as by canning clubs or commercial canners.

In the purchase of tin cans, the size of the opening should receive consideration. If large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, pears, and tomatoes, are to be canned, the opening must be a large one; whereas, if peas, beans, corn, and other small vegetables or fruits are to be canned, cans having a smaller opening may be chosen. When acid fruits or vegetables are to be canned, use should be made of cans that are coated with shellac, as this covering on the inside of the cans prevents any action of the acid on the tin.

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CANNING METHODS

GENERAL DISCUSSION

26. The methods employed for the canning of foods include the open-kettle method, the cold-pack method, the steam-pressure method, and the oven method. Of these, the open-kettle method is perhaps the oldest household method of canning, and it is still used by many housewives. The other methods, which are newer, seem troublesome to the housewife who is familiar with the open-kettle method, yet it will only be fair to give the new methods a trial before deciding which to use. The one-period cold-pack method has much to recommend it. Foods canned in this way undergo less change in form and flavor than those canned by the open-kettle method; besides, there is less danger of spoiling. In fact, many foods, such as vegetables and meats, that cannot be canned satisfactorily by the open-kettle method will keep perfectly if they are carefully preserved by the one-period cold-pack method. The steam-pressure method requires the use of special equipment, as is explained later. While it is a very acceptable canning method, it is not accessible in many homes. The oven method is liked by many housewives, but it offers almost the same chance for contamination as does the open-kettle method.

OPEN-KETTLE METHOD

27. The OPEN-KETTLE METHOD of canning is very simple and requires no equipment other than that to be found in every kitchen. It consists in thoroughly cooking the food that is to be canned, transferring it to containers, and sealing them immediately.

28. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--Not many utensils are required for the open-kettle canning method. For cooking the food, a large enamel or metal vessel other than tin or iron should be provided. It should be broad and shallow, rather than deep, especially for fruit, as this food retains its shape better if it is cooked in a layer that is not deep. The other utensils for canning fruits and vegetables by this method are practically the same as those already discussed--measuring utensils, a knife, large spoons, pans for sterilizing jars or cans, covers, rubbers, and jars or cans into which to put the food.

29. PROCEDURE.--The first step in the open-kettle canning method consists in sterilizing the containers. To do this, first clean the jars, covers, and rubbers by washing them and then boiling them in clear water for 15 to 20 minutes.

Next, attention should be given to the food that is to be canned. Look it over carefully, cut out any decayed portions, and wash it thoroughly. Sometimes roots, leaves, stems, or seeds are removed before washing, and sometimes this is not done until after washing. At any rate, all dirt or foreign material must be washed from foods before they are ready for canning.

After preparing the food, it must be cooked. If fruit is being canned, put it into the required sirup, the making of which is explained later, and cook it until it is well softened, as if preparing it for immediate table use. If vegetables are being canned, cook them in the same way, but use salt and water instead of sirup. When the food is cooked, transfer it to the sterile jars and seal at once with the sterile rubbers and covers. Then invert each jar to permit the food to cool and to test for leaks.

30. The danger of not securing good results with the open-kettle method lies in the possibility of contaminating the contents before the jar is closed and sealed. In addition to having the jars, rubbers, and covers sterile, therefore, all spoons and other utensils used to handle the cooked food must be sterile. Likewise, the jars must be filled to the top and the covers put on and made as firm and tight as possible at once, so that as few bacteria as possible will enter. If screw-top cans are used, the tops should not be twisted or turned after cooling, as this may affect the sealing. If jars leak upon being turned upside down, the contents must be removed and reheated and the jar must be fitted with another cover. Then both jar and cover must be sterilized and the contents returned and sealed immediately.

COLD-PACK METHOD

31. The COLD-PACK METHOD of canning differs from the open-kettle method in that the food to be canned is not cooked in a kettle before placing it in the jars and sealing them. In this method, the food to be canned is prepared by washing, peeling, scraping, hulling, stemming, seeding, or cutting, depending on the kind. Then it is scalded or blanched and plunged into cold water quickly and taken out immediately, the latter operation being called cold-dipping. After this it is placed into hot jars, covered with boiling liquid--boiling water and salt for vegetables, meats, fish, or soups, and boiling sirup for fruits. Then the filled jars are covered loosely and placed in a water bath and processed; that is, cooked and sterilized. When food that is being canned is subjected to processing only once, the method is referred to as the one-period cold-pack method; but when the food in the jars has not been blanched and cold-dipped and is processed, allowed to stand 24 hours and then processed again, and this operation repeated, it is called the fractional-sterilization method. The equipment required for the cold-pack canning method and the procedure in performing the work are taken up in detail, so that every point concerning the work may be thoroughly understood.

32. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--The utensils required for canning by the cold-pack method are shown assembled in Fig. 6. Chief among them is a sterilizer, or boiler, which consists of a large fiat-bottomed vessel fitted with a rack and a tight-fitting cover. A number of such devices are manufactured for canning by the cold-pack method, but it is possible to improvise one in the home. A wash boiler, a large pail, a large lard can, or, in fact, any large vessel with a flat bottom into which is fitted a rack of some kind to keep the jars 3/4 inch above the bottom can be used. Several layers of wire netting cut to correct size and fastened at each end to a 3/4-inch strip of wood will do very well for a rack. In any event, the vessel must be deep enough to allow the water to cover the jars completely and must have a tight-fitting cover. Besides a sterilizer, there are needed three large vessels, one for scalding the food that is to be canned, one for cold-dipping, and one for keeping the jars hot. To hold the food that is to be dipped, a sieve, a wire basket, also shown in Fig. 6, or a large square of cheesecloth must also be provided, and for placing jars in the water bath, a can lifter, a type of which is shown on the table in Fig. 6, may be needed. The remainder of the equipment is practically the same as that described under the heading General Equipment for Canning.

PROCEDURE IN THE ONE-PERIOD COLD-PACK METHOD

33. PREPARING THE CONTAINERS.--The first step in the cold-pack method consists in preparing the containers for the food. The jars, rubbers, and covers, however, do not have to be sterilized as in the open-kettle method. But it is necessary first to test and cleanse the jars and then to keep them hot, so that later, when they are filled and ready to be placed in the water bath, they will not crack by coming in contact with boiling water. The best way in which to keep the jars hot is to let them stand in hot water.

34. PREPARATION OF THE FOOD.--Attention should next be directed to the preparation of the food to be canned; that is, clean it and have it ready for the processes that follow. The fruits or vegetables may be canned whole or in pieces of any desirable size. What to do with them is explained later, when the directions for canning the different kinds are discussed. While the food is undergoing preparation, fill the sterilizer with hot water and allow it to come to the boiling point.

35. SCALDING AND BLANCHING.--When the food is made ready, the next step is to scald or blanch it. Scalding is done to loosen the skin of such food as peaches, plums, and tomatoes, so that they may be peeled easily. To scald such fruits or vegetables, dip them quickly into boiling water and allow them to remain there just long enough to loosen the skin. If they are ripe, the scalding must be done quickly; otherwise they will become soft. They should never be allowed to remain in the water after the skin begins to loosen. For scalding fruits and vegetables a wire basket or a square of cheesecloth may be used in the manner shown in Figs. 7 and 8.

Blanching is done to reduce the bulk of such foods as spinach and other greens, to render them partly sterilized, and to improve their flavor. It consists in dipping the food into boiling water or suspending it over live steam and allowing it to remain there for a longer period of time than is necessary for scalding. To blanch food, place it in a wire basket, a sieve, or a piece of clean cheesecloth and lower it into boiling water or suspend it above the water in a closely covered vessel. Allow it to remain there long enough to accomplish the purpose intended.

36. COLD DIPPING.--After the food to be canned is scalded or blanched, it is ready for cold-dipping. Cold-dipping is done partly to improve the color of the food. It stops the softening process at once, makes the food more firm and thus easier to handle, and helps to loosen the skin of foods that have been scalded. It also assists in destroying bacteria by suddenly shocking the spores after the application of heat. Cold-dipping, in conjunction with blanching or scalding, replaces the long process of fractional sterilization, and is what makes the one-period cold-pack method superior to this other process. To cold-dip food, simply plunge that which has just been scalded or blanched into cold water, as in Fig. 9, and then take it out at once.

37. PACKING THE JARS.--Packing the jars immediately follows cold-dipping, and it is work that should be done as rapidly as possible. Remove the jars from the hot water as they are needed and fill each with the cold-dipped fruit or vegetable. Pack the jars in an orderly manner and as solidly as possible with the aid of a spoon, as in Fig. 10. Just this little attention to detail not only will help to improve the appearance of the canned fruit, but will make it possible to put more food in the jars.

When a jar is filled, pour into it whatever liquid is to be used, as in Fig. 11. As has been stated, hot sirup is added for fruits and boiling water and salt for vegetables. However, when fruit is to be canned without sugar, only water is added. With tomatoes and some greens, no liquid need be used, because they contain a sufficient amount in themselves.

38. PREPARATION FOR THE WATER BATH.--As the jars are filled, they must be prepared for the water bath. Therefore, proceed to place the rubber and cover on the jar. Adjust the rubber, as shown in Fig. 12, so that it will be flat in place. Then put the cover, or lid, on as in Fig. 13, but do not tighten it. The cover must be loose enough to allow steam to escape during the boiling in the water bath and thus prevent the jar from bursting. If the cover screws on, as in the jar at the left, do not screw it down tight; merely turn it lightly until it stops without pressure being put upon it. If glass covers that fasten in place with the aid of a clamp are to be used, as in the jar at the right, simply push the wire over the cover and allow the clamp at the side to remain up. Jars of food so prepared are ready for processing.

39. PROCESSING.--The purpose of the water bath is to process the food contained in the jars before they are thoroughly sealed. Therefore, when the jars are filled, proceed to place them in the water bath. The water, which was placed in the sterilizer during the preparation of the food, should be boiling, and there should be enough to come 2 inches over the tops of the jars when they are placed in this large vessel. In putting the jars of food into the sterilizer, place them upright and allow them to rest on the rack in the bottom. If the filled jars have cooled, they should be warmed before placing them in the sterilizer by putting them in hot water. On account of the boiling water, the jars should be handled with a jar lifter, as in Fig. 14. However, if the sterilizer is provided with a perforated part like that in Fig. 15, all the jars may be placed in it and then lowered in place.

When the jars are in place, put the tight-fitting cover on the sterilizer and allow the water to boil and thus cook and sterilize the food in the jars. The length of time for boiling varies with the kind of food and is given later with the directions for canning different foods. The boiling time should be counted from the instant the water in the sterilizer begins to bubble violently. A good plan to follow, provided an alarm clock is at hand, it to set it at this time, so that it will go off when the jars are to be removed from the sterilizer.

40. SEALING THE JARS.--After processing the food in this manner, the jars must be completely sealed. Therefore, after the boiling has continued for the required length of time, remove the jars from the water with the aid of the jar lifter or the tray and seal them at once by clamping or screwing the covers, or lids, in place, as in Fig. 16. Sometimes, the food inside the jars shrinks so much in this process that the jars are not full when they are ready to be sealed. This is illustrated in Fig. 17. Such shrinkage is usually the result of insufficient blanching, or poor packing or both. However, it will not prevent the food from keeping perfectly. Therefore, the covers of such jars of food must not be removed and the jars refilled; rather, seal the jars tight immediately, just as if the food entirely filled them. If, in sealing jars removed from the water bath, it is found that a rubber has worked loose, shove it back carefully with the point of a clean knife, but do not remove the cover.

As the jars are sealed, place them on their sides or stand them upside down, as in Fig. 18, to test for leaks, in a place where a draft will not strike them and cause them to break. If a leak is found in any jar, a new rubber and cover must be provided and the food then reprocessed for a few minutes. This may seem to be a great inconvenience, but it is the only way in which to be certain that the food will not be wasted by spoiling.

41. WRAPPING AND LABELING.--When the jars of food have stood long enough to cool, usually overnight, they are ready for wrapping and labeling. Wrapping is advisable for practically all foods that are canned, so as to prevent bleaching, and, of course, labeling is necessary when canned food is wrapped, so as to enable it to be distinguished readily when it is in storage. To wrap canned foods, proceed as in Fig. 19. Use ordinary wrapping paper cut to a size that will be suitable for the jar, and secure it in place with a rubber band, as shown, or by pasting the label over the free edge.

PROCEDURE IN THE FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION METHOD

42. In canning food by the FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION CANNING METHOD, the procedure is much the same as in the one-period cold-pack method. In fact, the only difference between the two is that blanching and cold-dipping are omitted, and in their stead the food in the jars is subjected to three periods of cooking. When the jars of food are made ready for processing in the sterilizer, they are put in the water bath, boiled for a short time, and then allowed to cool. After 24 hours, they are again boiled for the same length of time and allowed to cool. After another 24 hours, they are subjected to boiling for a third time. Then the jars of food are removed and sealed as in the one-period cold-pack method. By the fractional-sterilization method, the spores of bacteria contained in the food packed in the jars are given a chance to develop during the 24-hour periods after the first and second cookings, those which become active being destroyed by cooking the second and third times. Although some canners prefer this method to those already mentioned, the majority look on it with disfavor, owing to the length of time it requires.

STEAM-PRESSURE METHODS

43. For canning foods by steam pressure, special equipment is necessary. In one of the steam-pressure methods, what is known as a water-seal outfit is required, and in the other a device called a pressure cooker is employed. The work of getting the containers ready, preparing the food for canning, packing it into the jars, and sealing and testing the jars is practically the same in the steam pressure methods as in the cold-pack methods. The difference lies in the cooking and sterilization of the foods after they are in the jars and partly sealed and in the rapidity with which it may be done.

44. CANNING WITH A WATER-SEAL OUTFIT.--A water-seal outfit, which may be purchased in stores that sell canning supplies, consists of a large metal vessel into which fits a perforated metal basket designed to hold jars of food. This vessel is also provided with a tight-fitting cover having an edge that passes down through the water, which is placed in the bottom of the vessel. When heat is applied to the bottom of the vessel, the water inside of it is changed into steam. The cover prevents the steam from passing out, and it collects in and around the metal basket supporting the jars of food. Enough steam is generated in this outfit to raise the temperature about 4 to 6 degrees above the boiling point. Thus, the water-seal outfit will cook the food in the cans in about one-fourth less time than will the water bath of the one-period cold-pack canning method.

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

45. CANNING WITH A PRESSURE COOKER.--For canning by steam pressure, a number of different kinds of pressure cookers are to be had, but in principle they are all alike and they are always made of heavy material, so as to withstand the severe steam pressure generated in them. In Fig. 20 is shown one type of pressure cooker. It is provided with a bail, or handle, for carrying it and with clamps that hold the cover firmly in place. Attached to the cover is a steam gauge, which indicates the steam pressure inside the cooker, and a pet-cock, which is used to regulate the pressure. On some cookers, a thermometer is also attached to the cover. Also, inside of some, resting on the bottom, is an elevated rack for supporting the jars of food that are to be sterilized and cooked. In operating a pressure cooker, water for generating steam is poured in until it reaches the top of this rack, but it should not be allowed to cover any part of the jars of food. Steam is generated by applying heat to the bottom of the cooker, and the longer the heat is applied the higher the steam pressure will go.

It is possible to secure a steam pressure of 5 to 25 pounds per square inch in a cooker of this kind. This means that the temperature reached will vary from a few degrees above boiling to about 275 degrees Fahrenheit. At a pressure of 20 pounds, the temperature will be about 260 degrees. The heavier the material used for a cooker and the more solid the construction, the higher may go the steam pressure, and, of course, the temperature. Some cookers of light construction will not permit of a pressure greater than 5 pounds, but even such cookers are very satisfactory. It is the high temperature that may be developed in a pressure cooker that greatly shortens the time required for cooking jars of food and making them sterile.

CANNING WITH TIN CANS

46. For canning food in some tin cans, it is necessary to have a soldering outfit for properly closing them. This consists of a capping steel, a tipping iron, solder in small strips and in powder form, a small can of sal ammoniac, and a bottle of flux, which is a fluid that makes solder stick to tin.

47. Prepare the food that is to be canned in tin cans in the same way as for canning in jars by the cold-pack method; likewise, pack the cans in the same way, but allow the liquid and fruit or vegetables to come to within only 1/4 inch of the top. Then proceed to close the cans. Apply the flux to the groove in the top of each can where the solder is to be melted, using for this purpose a small brush or a small stick having a piece of cloth wrapped around one end. Heat the capping steel, which should be thoroughly clean, until it is almost red hot, dip it quickly into a little of the flux, and then put it into a mixture consisting of equal parts of sal ammoniac and powdered solder until it is covered with bright solder. Put the cap on the can and apply the hot capping steel covered with the solder. Hold this device firmly, press it downwards, and turn it slowly as the solder melts and thus joins the cap to the can.

48. After the caps are soldered in place, the air inside the cans must be driven out through the small vent, or opening, usually in the center of the cap, and the cans made air-tight. Therefore, place the cans into boiling water to within 1/2 inch of the top and let them remain there for a few minutes. Usually, 3 minutes in boiling water is sufficient. Immediately after exhausting, as this process is called, apply a little of the flux as in capping, and, with the tipping iron well heated and a strip of solder, seal the hole in the caps. After this is done, test each can for leaks by submerging it in water. If bubbles arise, it is an indication that the cover is not tight and must be resoldered.

49. The next step consists in processing the cans of food. This may be done either in a water bath or in a pressure cooker. If the cans are to be processed in a water bath, keep them in the boiling water just as long as glass jars of food would be kept there. If a pressure cooker is to be used, keep the cans in it for 6 to 40 minutes, depending on the steam pressure employed, the ripeness of the food or the necessity for cooking it, and the size of the cans employed. For canning meat or fish, processing in a pressure cooker is the most successful, as the high temperature reached in it kills bacteria, which are difficult to destroy at the boiling point.

As soon as the cans of food are removed from the water bath or the pressure cooker, plunge them into cold water to stop the cooking and prevent the food from getting soft and mushy. Then label the cans, so that no mistake will be made as to their contents.

50. In another method, the tin cans may be closed without soldering the caps on. The caps used in this case are different from those which must be soldered. They are forced in place by a hand-pressure machine that may be attached to a table. Otherwise the procedure is the same as that just given.

OVEN METHOD

51. The OVEN METHOD of canning is thought to be very satisfactory by many housewives, but, as it is necessary to remove the covers after cooking the contents of the jars, food canned in this way is subjected to contamination, just as in the open-kettle method. In addition, the jars are difficult to handle in the oven, owing to the extreme heat that is required to cook the food in the jars.

52. In canning by the oven method, proceed by preparing the food as for the cold-pack canning method; also, fill the jars with fruit or vegetables and with liquid or sirup as in this method. Put the covers on the jars loosely, omitting the jar rubbers. Place the jars in a shallow pan of water, as in Fig. 21, and set the pan containing the jars into a stove oven, which should be only slightly warm. At the same time place the jar rubbers in a pan of boiling water, so that they may be sterilized as the food cooks. When the jars are in the oven, increase the heat gradually until the food in them boils. Then keep up a temperature that will allow the food to boil quietly for a period long enough to cook it soft and sterilize it. Usually, 30 to 45 minutes after boiling has begun will be sufficient. During the cooking some of the liquid in the jars evaporates. Therefore, when the jars of food are ready to be removed from the oven, have boiling water or sirup ready, remove the cover of each jar in turn, and fill the jar brimful with the liquid. Then place a sterilized rubber in place and fasten the cover down tight. The procedure from this point on is the same as in the other canning methods.

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CANNING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

PREPARATION FOR CANNING

53. In canning, as in all other tasks related to cookery, the housewife's aim should be to do the greatest amount of work, and do it well, with the least effort on her part. The results she gets in canning, then, will depend considerably on the orderly arrangement of the utensils and materials with which she is to do the work. But of greater importance is the preparation she makes to eliminate as much as she can the possibilities of contamination, for, as has been repeatedly pointed out, success in canning depends on the absence of dangerous bacteria.

54. From what has just been mentioned, it is essential that everything about the person who is to do the work and the place in which the work is to done should be clean. Clean dresses and aprons should be worn, and the hands and finger nails should be scrupulously clean. The kitchen floor should be scrubbed and the furniture dusted with a damp cloth. Any unnecessary utensils and kitchen equipment should be put out of the way and those required for canning assembled and made ready for the work. The jars should be washed and the covers tested by fitting them on without the rubbers. If a glass cover rocks, it does not fit correctly; and if a screw cover will not screw down tight, it should be discarded. Without the rubber, there should be just enough space between the cover and the jar to permit the thumb nail to be inserted as is shown in Fig. 3. The edge of each jar and each glass cover should be carefully examined every time it is used, so that none with pieces chipped off will be used, as these will admit air. This examination is made by running the finger over the edge of the jar and the cover, as is shown in Fig. 4. The jars, covers, and rubbers should be put into pans of cold water, and the water should be brought to the boiling point and allowed to boil for 15 minutes or more while the fruit or vegetables are being prepared for canning. They should be kept in the hot water until the food is ready to be placed in them. In the one-period cold-pack method, it is not necessary to boil the jars, rubbers, and covers, but this may be done if desired.

To produce good-looking jars of food, the fruit or vegetables to be canned should be graded to some extent; that is, the finest of the fruits or vegetables should be separated and used by themselves, as should also those of medium quality. Often it is wise to use the poorest foods for purposes other than canning. The food may then be canned according to the chosen method, but by no means should methods be mixed. In handling the product after it has been cooked by the open-kettle method, any spoon, funnel, or other utensil must be thoroughly sterilized in the same way as the jars and their covers and rubbers; indeed, no unsterile utensil should ever be allowed to touch the food when a jar is being filled.

55. It is by the observance of such precautions as these, some of them seemingly unimportant, that the housewife will be repaid for her efforts in canning and be able to produce canned fruits and vegetables like those shown in color in Fig. 22. This illustration shows, with a few exceptions, such foods canned by the one-period cold-pack method, and merits close inspection. As will be observed, the jars are full and well packed and the color of each food is retained. Each can of food indicates careful work and serves to show the housewife what she may expect if she performs her work under the right conditions and in the right way. This illustration likewise serves to demonstrate that any food may be successfully canned by the one-period cold-pack method, a claim that cannot be made for the other canning methods. In fact, some of the foods illustrated, as, for instance, peas and corn, cannot be canned successfully by any other method.

DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING VEGETABLES

56. CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES.--To simplify the directions here given for the canning of vegetables, this food is divided into four groups, as follows:

1. Greens, which include all wild and cultivated edible greens, such as beet greens, collards, cress, dandelion, endive, horseradish greens, kale, mustard greens, spinach, New Zealand spinach, and Swiss chard.

2. Pod and related vegetables, which include asparagus, beans, both string and wax, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, okra, peppers, both green and ripe, summer squash, and vegetable marrow.

3. Root and tuber vegetables, which include beets, carrots, kohlrabi, parsnips, rutabagas, salsify, sweet potatoes, and turnips.

4. Special vegetables, which include beans, both Lima and shell, corn, mushrooms, peas, pumpkin, sauerkraut, squash, succotash and other vegetable combinations, and tomatoes.

The convenience of this plan will be readily seen when it is understood that, with the exception of the special vegetables, the same method of preparation and the time given for the various steps in the canning process apply to all vegetables of the same class. Thus, if directions for a vegetable belonging to a certain class are not definitely stated in the text, it may be taken for granted that this vegetable may be canned in the manner given for another vegetable of the same class.

57. GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--The canning of vegetables may be most successfully done by the one-period cold-pack method. Tomatoes, however, because of the large quantity of acid they contain, may be canned and kept with little difficulty by the open-kettle method, but they will be found to keep their shape better if the cold-pack method is employed.

The time required for cooking any vegetable after it is packed in jars depends on the kind and the age. Therefore, if a vegetable is hard or likely to be tough, it may be necessary to increase the time given in the directions; whereas, if it is young and tender or very ripe, as in the case of tomatoes, the time for cooking may perhaps have to be decreased. Because, in altitudes higher than sea level, the boiling point of water is lower than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, the length of time for boiling foods in the water bath must be increased after an altitude of 500 feet is reached. Therefore, for every additional 500 feet over the first 500 feet, 10 per cent. should be added to the time given for the boiling in water. In case a pressure cooker is used, however, this is not necessary.

The canning directions here given are for 1-quart jars. If pint jars are to be used, decrease the salt proportionately; also, decrease the time for cooking in each case one-fifth of the time, or 20 per cent. If 2-quart jars are to be used, double the amount of salt and add to the length of time for cooking one-fifth, or 20 per cent. For instance, if a 1-quart jar of food requires 90 minutes, a pint jar of the same food would require 72 minutes and a 2-quart jar, 108 minutes.

GROUP 1--GREENS

58. In canning greens, or vegetables belonging to the first group, select those which are fresh and tender. Greens that are old and inclined to be strong and tough may require longer blanching and cooking. Look the greens over carefully, rejecting all leaves that are wilted or otherwise spoiled. Cut off the roots and drop the leaves into a pan of cold water. Wash these thoroughly a number of times, using fresh water each time, in order to remove all sand and dirt that may be clinging to them. Then proceed to blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in steam, suspending the greens over boiling water in a piece of cheesecloth, a colander, or the top of a steamer. After blanching, dip them quickly into cold water. Then pack the greens tightly into jars and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. No water has to be added to greens, because the leaves themselves contain sufficient water. When the jars are thus packed, adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook the greens according to the directions previously given. If the water bath is to be used, boil them in it for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; but if the pressure cooker is to be employed for this purpose, cook them at a 5-pound pressure for 60 minutes or at a 10-pound pressure for 40 minutes.

GROUP 2--POD AND RELATED VEGETABLES

59. The best results in canning vegetables belonging to the second group will be derived when those which are fresh and tender are selected. As has been mentioned, the sooner vegetables are canned after they are taken from the garden, the better will be the canned product. Directions for practically all vegetables included in this group are here given.

60. ASPARAGUS.--Select tender asparagus, and proceed with the canning no later than 5 hours after it has been taken from the garden. Remove the hard portions at the ends of the stems, and cut the trimmed stems into pieces the length of the jars into which they are to be placed. If preferred, however, the asparagus may be cut into small pieces. Wash the cut asparagus thoroughly in cold water, and then sort out the uneven pieces that were cut off in making the stems even in length. These may be canned separately for soup. Lay the stems of asparagus in an orderly pile in a colander or a wire basket, cover it, and place it into a large vessel where it may be kept completely covered with boiling water for 5 minutes. Then cold-dip the asparagus quickly, and pack it neatly into the jars, keeping the tip ends up. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful and pour boiling water into each jar until it is completely full. Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of food. Cook for 1-1/2 to 2 hours in the water bath, or, in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

61. BRUSSELS SPROUTS, CABBAGE, AND CAULIFLOWER.--In canning Brussels sprouts, cabbage, or cauliflower, first prepare each vegetable as if it were to be cooked for the table. When thus made ready, blanch it with the aid of a square of cheesecloth or a colander in live steam, over boiling water, for 10 to 15 minutes. Then cold-dip it and pack it tightly into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful and fill each jar with boiling water. Proceed next to sterilize and cook it according to the method selected. Boil for 90 minutes in the water bath; in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 40 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

62. EGGPLANT AND SUMMER SQUASH.--Both eggplant and summer squash are canned in the same way, because the consistency of these vegetables is much alike. Select firm vegetables with no decayed spots. Blanch for 3 to 8 minutes in boiling water; cold-dip quickly; remove the skins; cut into pieces of a size that will fit into the jars; pack into the jars; and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. Next, adjust the jar lids and proceed according to the directions given for the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. Eggplant or summer squash so canned may be rolled in egg and crumbs and sautÉd or fried, the same as fresh vegetables of this kind.

63. OKRA AND GREEN PEPPERS.--Both okra and green peppers may also be canned in the same way. Prepare these vegetables for canning by washing fresh, tender pods of either vegetable thoroughly. Blanch for 5 to 15 minutes in boiling water and cold-dip quickly. Pack the pods into the jars, add a teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the lids and proceed according to directions for the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

64. STRING BEANS.--String beans of any variety should be canned as soon as they are gathered. If the beans to be canned are not of the stringless variety, prepare them by stringing them, following the directions given in Vegetables, Part 1. Stringless beans should be selected if possible, to avoid this part of the work. Cut out any rusted portions, cut each end from the beans, and, if preferred, cut the beans into inch lengths. When thus prepared, blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in live steam, cold-dip quickly, and pack tightly into the jars. Add a teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, fill the jars with boiling water, adjust the lids, and cook according to the method preferred. In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

GROUP 3--ROOT AND TUBER VEGETABLES

65. Only the small, young, and tender vegetables included in the third group lend themselves readily to canning. As a rule, such vegetables are allowed to mature, when they can be stored for winter use without canning them. However, many housewives like to can some of them for the variety they offer in the preparation and planning of meals.

66. BEETS.--For canning, select small, young beets. Prepare them by cutting off the tops, which may be cooked as greens or canned separately, and all but about an inch of the stems and an inch of the roots. Scrub the trimmed beets well, and then blanch them in boiling water for 5 to 15 minutes or until the skins may be easily scraped off with a knife. Plunge them quickly into cold water and draw them out again. Then scrape off the skins and remove the roots and stems. The roots and stems are left on during the blanching and cold-dipping to prevent them from bleeding, or losing color. When thus prepared, pack the beets into jars, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Then adjust the jar tops and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of beets according to the directions for any preferred method. In the water bath, cook them for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

67. CARROTS, PARSNIPS, AND TURNIPS.--Young parsnips and turnips are canned in exactly the same way as young carrots. Therefore, directions for the canning of carrots will suffice for all three of these vegetables. Prepare the carrots for canning by cutting off the tops and the roots and scrubbing them well. Blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in boiling water, so that the skins may be easily removed, and cold-dip them. Then remove the skins by scraping, pack the carrots into the jars, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the jar tops next, and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of carrots according to the method selected. In the water bath, cook for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

GROUP 4--SPECIAL VEGETABLES

68. Vegetables of the fourth group, which include those which cannot well be classified in the other groups, lend themselves readily to combinations, such as succotash, that make for variety in food. As is true of the other vegetables, special vegetables must be fresh and sound if good results in canning are expected.

69. LIMA AND OTHER SHELLED BEANS.--For canning, only tender beans, whether Lima or some other variety, should be chosen. Prepare them for immediate canning by shelling them--that is, taking them from the pods--blanching them for 5 to 10 minutes in boiling water, and then cold-dipping them quickly. Pack the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook them. In the water bath, boil for 2-1/2 to 3 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of 10 pounds.

70. GREEN CORN.--For canning purposes, only corn that is young and milky should be selected. Get it ready for canning by husking it and removing the silk. Then blanch it for 3 to 5 minutes in boiling water and cold-dip it quickly. Cut the kernels half way down to the cob and scrape out what remains after cutting. For best results in this operation, hold the ear of corn so that the butt end is up; then cut from the tip toward the butt, but scrape from the butt toward the tip. Next, pack the jars tightly with the corn, pressing it into them with a wooden masher. Unless two persons can work together, however, cut only enough corn for one jar and fill and partly seal it before cutting more. As corn swells in the cooking, fill each jar to within 1/2 inch of the top. The milk in the corn should fill all spaces between the kernels, provided there are any, but if it does not, boiling water may be poured in. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful of corn and adjust the jar lids. Boil for 3 hours in the water bath; but, if the pressure cooker is to be used, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of 10 pounds.

Corn on the cob may be canned in the same way if desired, but as only three small ears can be put into a quart jar, this would seem to be a waste of space and labor. If corn on the cob is to be canned, 2-quart jars will prove more convenient than 1-quart jars.

71. PEAS.--Peas for canning should be well formed and tender, and they should be canned as soon as possible after coming from the garden. Proceed by washing the pods and shelling the peas. Blanch the shelled peas for 5 to 10 minutes in live steam, and cold-dip them quickly. Pack the peas into the jars, having them come to within 1/2 inch from the top, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Then adjust the jar lids and proceed according to directions for the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 2 or 3 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of 10 pounds.

72. PUMPKIN AND SQUASH.--The canning of pumpkin and squash is advisable when there is any possibility of their not keeping until they can be used. Prepare either of these vegetables for canning by first peeling it and cutting the edible part into inch cubes. Blanch these cubes for 10 to 15 minutes in live steam and cold-dip them quickly. Pack the jars as full as possible, and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, but no water. After adjusting the jar lids, boil the jars of food for 1-1/2 hours in the water bath, or cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds in the pressure cooker. When finished, the jars will be found to be only about half full, but the contents will keep perfectly.

If desired, pumpkin or squash may first be cooked as if preparing it for use and then put into the jars for processing.

73. SUCCOTASH.--Of course, succotash is not a vegetable, but the name of a food that results from combining corn and beans. These vegetables may be canned together to make for variety in the winter's food supply, or each may be canned separately and combined later. Clean the ears of corn in the manner previously directed; then blanch them for 5 minutes and cold-dip them. Also, remove green Lima beans from the pods, blanch them for 10 minutes, and cold-dip them. Then cut and scrape the corn off the cobs and mix it with an equal quantity of the beans. Pack the mixture into the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top, add a teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the jar tops and proceed according to the directions for the process to be employed. In the water bath, boil for 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 35 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

74. TOMATOES.--As has been stated, tomatoes may be canned successfully by the open-kettle method. If this method is to be employed, the first part of the preparation is exactly the same as for the cold-pack method, except that the jars, jar tops, and jar rubbers must be carefully sterilized.

For canning, firm tomatoes should be selected if possible, as they will keep their shape better than those which are very ripe. If some are soft, they should be sorted out and canned for soup making or made into catsup. After washing the tomatoes, proceed to blanch them. The length of time required for blanching depends entirely on the condition of the tomatoes. They should be blanched for 1 to 3 minutes, or just long enough to loosen the skin. After blanching, dip them quickly into cold water and remove the skins. These, it will be found, may be removed easily and quickly. Pack the tomatoes thus prepared tightly into jars and fill them with boiling water, boiling tomato juice, or stewed tomatoes. Add a teaspoonful of salt to each jar. Then adjust the jar lids and proceed according to the directions given for the method selected. Boil for 22 minutes in the water bath; in the pressure cooker, cook for 15 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 10 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

75. TOMATOES FOR SOUP.--If there are soft tomatoes at hand or if tomatoes are canned by the open-kettle method, quantities of tomato juice will be available. Such material as this may be put through a sieve and boiled down for winter use in the making of soups, bisques, etc. It may be canned simply by pouring the boiling juice into sterilized jars and sealing them immediately.

76. TOMATOES AND CORN.--An excellent food combination results from combining stewed tomatoes with corn. Such a combination may be canned safely by either the open-kettle or the cold-pack method. The acid of the tomatoes helps to keep the corn, but the combination requires longer cooking than just plain tomatoes. Prepare each vegetable as for canning separately, but, if desired, cut the tomatoes into pieces. Mix the two foods in any desirable proportion and, for the cold-pack canning method, put the food into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, but no water. Then adjust the jar lids, and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of food. In the water bath, cook them 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 35 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING FRUITS

77. The chief difference between the canning of fruits and the canning of vegetables is that sugar in the form of sirup, instead of salt water, is used for the liquid. Fruits may be canned without sugar if desired, but nothing is gained by so doing, for sugar will have to be added later. Because of the sugar used in canning and the acid contained in the fruit, canned fruit has better keeping qualities than canned vegetables. In fact, it is much more likely to keep well even though it does not receive such careful attention as vegetables. It is for this reason that canned fruit does not require so much time for sterilization as vegetables do. Still it should not be inferred that care is not necessary in the canning of fruits. Indeed, the more care that is taken, the better are the results likely to be.

SIRUPS FOR CANNING FRUITS

78. SIRUPS FOR CANNING.--Before the canning of fruits can be undertaken, it is necessary to possess a knowledge of the sirups that are needed. Such sirups consist simply of sugar dissolved in boiling water. The quantity of sugar and water required for a sirup depends on the acidity of the fruit and the purpose for which it is to be used. Plain canned fruits that are to be used for sauces, etc. require less sugar proportionately than those which are preserved, and fruit canned for pie making may have less than either. Thus, fruits of the same kind may be canned with sirups of different proportions. To a great extent, the quantity of sugar to use with fruit may be regulated by the taste, but it will be readily seen that such fruits as sour cherries and plums will require more sugar to make them palatable than pears and blueberries. It will be well to note, though, that the sugar does not penetrate the fruit unless the two are cooked together.

79. In order to make sirup for canning, place the desired quantities of sugar and water in a kettle and proceed to heat them. Stir the liquid while it is heating, in order to assist in dissolving the sugar. When it has begun to boil rapidly, remove the sirup from the fire and use it at once. Do not continue boiling.

In preparing such sirups, it will be well to note that the greater the proportion of sugar to water or the longer the sugar and water are allowed to boil, the denser, or heavier, will the sirup become. It is this density of sirup that regulates its use for the different kinds of fruit and determines its nature. Thus, a sirup in which the proportion of sugar to water is so large as to make the sirup thick is known as a heavy sirup; one in which the proportion of water to sugar is so large as to make the sirup thin is called a light sirup; and one in which the proportion of sugar and water is such as to produce a sirup that is neither thick nor thin, but stands between the two extremes, is called a medium sirup.

80. The density of sirup is also affected by the amount and rapidity of evaporation that takes place in boiling, and these, in turn, depend on the amount of surface that is exposed. For instance, if a sirup is cooked in a large, flat kettle, the evaporation will be greater and more rapid than if it is cooked in a small, deep vessel. Atmospheric pressure affects the rapidity of evaporation, too. In a high altitude, evaporation takes place more slowly than at sea level, because the boiling point is lower. Thus, in the making of sirups for canning, the first point to be determined is whether the sirup desired should be light, medium, or heavy, and in its preparation the points mentioned must receive consideration.

81. For determining the density of sirup, a sirup gauge, or hydrometer, will be found useful. This device consists of a graduated glass tube attached to a bulb that is weighted with mercury. The graduations, or marks, on the tube, or top part, of the hydrometer serve to indicate the percentage of solid matter dissolved in a solution and register from to 50 degrees. To use such a gauge, partly fill a glass cylinder--an ordinary drinking glass will do--with the sirup and place the hydrometer in it. The greater the amount of solid matter dissolved in the sirup, the higher will be hydrometer float. Then read the number of degrees registered by observing the mark that is level with the surface of the sirup.

The number of degrees that the hydrometer should register for sirups of different densities--that is, for sirups consisting of different proportions of sugar and water--are given in Table I. This table, in addition, gives the uses that should be made of such sirups, and each one is numbered so that it may be referred to readily later in the recipes for canning fruits.

82. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.--For the sake of convenience in canning, fruits, too, are here divided into groups. These groups, three in number, together with the fruits included in each, are:

1. Soft Fruits, which are subdivided into three kinds, namely, sweet, sour, and very sour. The sweet soft fruits include blackberries, blueberries or huckleberries, sweet cherries, elderberries, ripe gooseberries, mulberries, and black and red raspberries; the sour soft fruits, apricots, currants, grapes, peaches, and strawberries; and the very sour soft fruits, sour cherries, cranberries, green gooseberries, plums, and rhubarb.

2. Hard Fruits, which include apples, quinces, and pears.

3. Special Fruits, which include ripe figs, kumquats, loquats, nectarines, persimmons, and pineapples.

The advantage of this classification, as in the case of the vegetable classification, is that, as a rule, all fruits belonging to a group or a subdivision of a group may be canned in the same way and with sirup of practically the same density.

83. CANNING METHODS FOR FRUITS.--The canning of fruits may be done by the several methods previously discussed, but the Cold-pack and open-kettle methods seem to meet with most favor. On account of the sirup used in canning fruit and the acid in the fruit, the open-kettle method is usually fairly successful, whereas, in the canning of vegetables, with the exception of tomatoes, it is not so reliable. The housewife, by experiment, can determine which method will suit her needs best, but by no means should methods be mixed. If a certain method is decided on, it should be adhered to in every detail and carried through without any substitution. For all methods, as has been mentioned, the fruit should be selected when it is fresh and in good condition, as such fruit has less chance to spoil than fruit that is overripe or has decayed spots. After it is graded for size and condition, the fruit should be washed, stemmed, hulled, seeded, peeled, or halved, quartered, or sliced, depending on the kind. Then the work may be proceeded with according to the canning method that is to be followed.

84. If fruits are to be canned by the open-kettle method, certain precautions must be observed in order to insure success. The sterilization of the product cannot be perfect in this method no matter how carefully the canning is done; and this means that the sugar and the fruit acids must be greatly relied on to assist in preservation. Still, the jars, jar covers, jar rubbers, and any utensils used for filling the jars must be sterilized and kept in boiling water until the fruit is ready to be canned. Another thing to guard against is the discoloring of the fruit. Any fruit that is likely to become discolored after it is prepared for canning should be kept in salt water until it is ready to be cooked. A solution consisting of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water will answer for this purpose.

After the fruit has been prepared and while the containers, etc. are being sterilized, it is necessary to prepare the sirup that is to be used. For the sweet fruits of Group 1, No. 1 or 2 sirup should be made; for the sour fruits of this group, No. 2 or 3 sirup; and for the very sour fruits, No. 4 or 5 sirup. The hard fruits may be canned by this method with No. 1, 2, or 3 sirup, while the special fruits require No. 4 or 5 sirup. If the fruit is to be canned for pie, it will be advisable to use thin sirup and then use more sweetening when pies are made.

When the sirup is made by mixing the sugar and water and bringing it to a boil, the prepared fruit should be dropped into it and cooked. The fruit should be cooked in the sirup until it may be easily pierced with a fork or until it is soft. Berries have to be cooked only a few minutes, while the hard fruits may require from 10 to 15 minutes. The jars should be placed upright in a pan of hot water while the boiling fruit from the kettle is poured into them, and as each jar is filled the rubber should be put in place and the cover adjusted and secured. It is important to close one jar before filling another, because the longer a jar remains open the more bacteria will be permitted to enter. Even by working as rapidly as possible and taking the greatest precaution, a certain number of bacteria are bound to enter in this method of canning. After the jars are filled and sealed, they should be placed upside down or on the side to cool and test for leaks.

85. If the cold-pack method is employed in canning fruit, it is possible to obtain a sterilized product that is dependent for preservation on neither the sirup used nor the acid of the fruit. In this method, the jars, jar tops, covers, and utensils for handling the fruit do not have to be sterilized beforehand. They may simply be washed clean and kept hot in clean water until they are needed. After the fruits are prepared, some are blanched or scalded and cold-dipped, while others are not. They are then packed into jars and boiling sirup is poured over them. Then the rubbers are adjusted, the covers placed on, but not made tight, and the jars are placed under water in the water bath or on the racks in the pressure cooker, which should contain a small amount of water, as has been explained. After cooking the required length of time, the jars of fruit are removed from the cooking utensil, sealed, and allowed to cool.

The sirup used in the cold-pack canning method may be heavier in each case than that mentioned for the open-kettle method, because there is no evaporation, as is the case where fruits are boiled in the sirup before they are placed in the cans, but less will be required if the packing is well done.

GROUP 1--SOFT FRUITS

86. SWEET SOFT FRUITS.--The sweet fruits included in Group 1 --blackberries, huckleberries, elderberries, ripe gooseberries, mulberries, raspberries, and sweet cherries-may be canned in exactly the same way, so that the same general directions will apply to all. Prepare the different kinds of berries, which should be as fresh as possible, by looking them over carefully and removing the poor ones, and then washing them. To wash them, pour them into a colander and dip it up and down in a large pan of clean, cold water. The less handling such fruits receive, the more perfect will they remain for canning. Prepare sweet cherries, which should be procured with the stems on if possible, by first washing them and then stemming them. They may be pitted, or seeded, or they may be left whole, depending on personal preference. Cherries that are not pitted will keep their shape and have a good appearance, but they are not so convenient for eating as those which have been pitted.

87. After the fruit has been prepared in the manner just explained, pack it closely into the hot, clean jars, using a spoon for this purpose and turning each jar as the fruit is poured into it. Press the berries or the cherries down carefully, so that 2 quarts of them will fill a 1-quart jar. Then proceed to make the sirup. As these fruits are the sweetest, they require less sugar than any other. If such fruit after it is canned is to be used for pie making, sirup No. 1 or 2 will be suitable, but if it is to be used for sauce, No. 3 sirup may be used. When the mixed sugar and water is boiling rapidly, pour it over the fruit packed into the jars. Then place the rubbers, adjust the jar tops, and proceed to sterilize and cook the cans of fruit. Boil these in the water bath for 15 minutes, or cook them in the pressure cooker for 8 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 4 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

88. SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Of the sour fruits, STRAWBERRIES, GRAPES, and CURRANTS require about the same quantity of sugar, that contained in sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 usually being sufficient. Otherwise, the canning process, including the length of time for processing, does not differ materially from that just given for sweet soft fruits.

In the case of strawberries, those which are of medium size and rather dark in color are best for canning; in fact, very large, light-colored strawberries will shrink more than any other kind. The berries are washed in the same way as other berries, but they should not be allowed to stand in water for any length of time, because this will tend to make them soft and mushy. Strawberries must be stemmed after they are washed, and for this purpose a strawberry huller should be utilized. Such a device, which is shown in Fig. 1, permits the stems to be removed without crushing the berries and soiling the fingers.

In preparing currants for canning, the procedure is the same as for the fruits already mentioned; and the same thing is true of grapes that are not to be seeded. If the seeds are to be removed, however, the procedure up to getting the cans of fruit ready for processing is different, as is here pointed out. After washing the grapes, squeeze the pulp from the skins and then cook it in a kettle for a sufficient length of time to make it soft. Remove the seeds by forcing the pulp through a sieve. Then add as much sugar as would be used for making the required sirup, and cook until the sugar is dissolved. With this done, add the sweetened, seedless pulp to the grape skins and fill the jars with this mixture. Then continue the canning process as for the other fruits of this group.

89. The procedure in canning APRICOTS and PEACHES, the other two sour soft fruits, differs slightly from that required for strawberries, grapes, and currants. So that the skins of both of these fruits may be easily removed, they must be scalded, which is an operation that corresponds to blanching in vegetable canning.

For canning purposes, only firm, fresh apricots and peaches that are not overripe should be selected. Also, in the case of peaches, care should be taken to see that they are of the freestone variety, as such peaches may be split easily. Clingstone peaches should not be chosen unless the fruit is to be canned whole or unless an implement for removing the seeds, or stones like that shown in Fig. 2, is at hand. Proceed with the canning of either apricots or peaches by first scalding them. To do this, put the fruit in boiling water for 1 to 3 minutes, depending on its ripeness. Next, cold-dip it quickly, remove the skins, and, if desired, cut each one in half and remove the seed, or stone. When thus prepared, pack the fruit into hot jars as tightly as possible, pour sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 over them, filling each jar, adjust the rubber and jar top, and proceed as directed for the cold-pack method. In the water bath, boil the cans of fruit for 15 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

90. VERY SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Some of the fruits of the third subdivision of Group 1, namely, SOUR CHERRIES, CRANBERRIES, and GREEN GOOSEBERRIES, may be prepared and canned in the same way as those included in the first subdivision. The cherries may be left whole or they may be seeded, as preferred, and all the fruit must, of course, be fresh. For these very sour fruits, sirups Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are required, and the processing time is 15 minutes in the water bath and 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker.

91. PLUMS for canning should be fresh and firm, but not overripe. This fruit may be canned with the skins on, but some varieties permit the skins to be removed after scalding, and this may be done if desired. Prepare the plums for canning by washing them, and, if the skins are to be left on, by piercing each one in several places with a fork to prevent the skins from cracking. Then scald the plums for about 1-1/2 minutes, cold-dip them quickly, and pack them closely into the hot jars. Pour sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the fruit in the jars, using sirup No. 6 if they are very sour, adjust the rubbers and the covers, and proceed according to the canning method selected. In the water bath, cook for 15 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 6 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

92. RHUBARB for canning should be selected when it is most tender. The variety having red stems is the most attractive after it is canned. Only the heavy stems, which should be cut from the leaves, may be canned. Cut these stems into inch lengths, blanch them 1 to 3 minutes in boiling water, and cold-dip them quickly. Then pack these pieces into the jars. If the rhubarb is being canned for sauce, fill each jar with sirup No. 5 or 6; if it is being canned for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3. Next, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the water bath, cook for 15 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

GROUP 2--HARD FRUITS

93. APPLES.--The canning of apples should be done when there is a large supply of summer apples that cannot be stored for winter use or used at once. Canning is also a good means of utilizing windfall apples. This fruit may be canned in quarters for sauce, in slices for pie, or in any other desirable shape or condition.

After apples for canning are selected, wash them, scald, or blanch, them for 1 to 5 minutes in boiling water, and cold-dip them quickly. Next, peel and core them, and cut each one into pieces of any desirable size. As these pieces are cut, drop them into salt water--1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water--to prevent them from discoloring. Then pack the fruit into the jars and fill the jars with boiling sirup. If the apples are intended for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3; if they are for sauce, use sirup No. 3, 4, or 5. When the jars are filled, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. If the pieces are large, cook them in the water bath for 20 minutes; if they are medium in size, cook them for 15 minutes; and if they are in the form of slices, cook them for 10 minutes. If they are to be processed in the pressure cooker, cook them for 8 to 12 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 6 to 8 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

If the apples to be canned are first baked or made into a sauce, simply pack them into jars and process them for a few minutes.

94. QUINCES.--Quinces may be canned alone, but they may be combined with apples to good advantage. If canned alone, they may require a heavier sirup than if apples are used with them. Prepare the quinces in the same way as apples. If apples are to be canned with them, cut the pieces of apples twice the size of the pieces of quinces. This should be done because more time is required for cooking the quinces soft. After packing the jars and pouring in the sirup, proceed with the processing. If quinces alone are in the jars, cook them in the water bath for 30 minutes; but if quinces and apples are combined, cook them for 20 minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook the jars of fruit for 12 to 15 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 10 to 12 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

95. PEARS.--Pears for canning should be firm, but not hard. After sorting and washing them, blanch them for 1 to 3 minutes and cold-dip them quickly. Then pare, halve, and core them. Pack them immediately into the jars and pour sirup No. 3 or 4 over them. Next, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the water bath, cook them for 20 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 8 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

GROUP 3--SPECIAL FRUITS

96. FIGS.--Although figs are not a common fruit, there are parts of this country, particularly on the western coast, in which they are abundant. For canning, ripe figs should be selected. To prepare them, blanch them for 2 minutes in boiling water and cold-dip them. Then pack them into the jars and fill the jars by pouring sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the figs. Proceed with the remainder of the process as in canning peaches.

97. KUMQUATS AND LOQUATS.--Kumquats and loquats are small acid fruits resembling oranges in color and plums in size and shape. Such fruits are not very common, but they may be obtained in some markets. To can either of these fruits, wash them, blanch for 5 minutes, cold-dip, pack into jars, and fill the jars with sirup No. 5 or 6. In the water bath, cook them for 15 minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

98. NECTARINES.--Nectarines are a smooth-skinned variety of peach. Ripe nectarines may be canned in the same way as peaches, but they do not require so much sugar, sirup No. 2 or 3 usually being about right.

99. PERSIMMONS.--Persimmons are a seedy, plum-like fruit common to the southern and southwestern parts of the United States. This fruit is very astringent when unripe, but is sweet and delicious when ripe or touched by frost. Well-frosted persimmons should be selected for canning. Blanch them so that the skin may be removed easily and cold-dip them quickly. Then peel them and pack them into hot jars. Fill the jars with sirup No. 6 and process them in the same way as peaches.

100. PINEAPPLES.--Pineapples are better known than any of the other special fruits. For canning, those ripe enough to permit the center leaves to pull out easily should be selected; also, they should be free from soft or rotten spots, which are most likely to appear first near the bottom. Pineapples are graded in size by the number that may be packed in a case. These sizes are 24, 30, 36, and 42, size 24 being the largest and size 42 the smallest. Sizes 30 and 36 are best for canning.

In canning pineapples, first place each in boiling water for 10 minutes and dip it quickly into cold water. Then prepare it for the cans. This may be done by removing the peeling with a sharp knife, digging out the eyes, and then slicing or dicing; by slicing first and then peeling and taking out the eyes; or by peeling, taking out the eyes, and then shredding it with the aid of a fork. When it is prepared, pack the fruit into the jars, fill each jar with sirup No. 4 or 5, adjust the rubbers and covers, and proceed to process it. In the water bath, cook for 30 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 12 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 10 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

CANNING MEAT AND FISH

101. Both fish and meat, including that from fowl and game, may be canned at times that seem convenient and then used when an emergency arises or at a time when the same food will cost more to prepare. Fowl, game, and fish may be canned to special advantage during the season when each is plentiful. The best process for canning such foods is the one-period cold-pack method.

102. MEAT.--In canning meat, whether from domestic animals, fowl, or game, first cut it into pieces of a size that would be suitable for serving at the table. The meat may be left raw or it may be prepared by any desirable cooking process, such as frying, fricasseeing, braizing, etc. Careful attention must be given to the drawing of fowl that is to be canned, because the entire alimentary tract should be removed without being broken. The giblets should not be canned with the rest of the meat, as they will not keep so well. Whether the meat is to be canned raw or cooked, pack the jars as tightly as possible. If the meat is raw, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of food and fill the jars three-fourths full with boiling water. In case the jar is filled to the top, fat will rise and injure the rubber. If the meat is cooked, add any liquid that may have resulted from the cooking, as well as boiling water, provided more liquid is needed. Then, as in canning vegetables and fruit, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the case of raw meat, sterilize for 3 hours in the water bath, or for 1-1/2 hours at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker. In the case of cooked meat, sterilize for 1-1/2 hours in the water bath, or for 30 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker.

103. FISH.--To prepare fish for canning, first clean it by scaling it and removing the entrails. Wrap the cleaned fish in cheesecloth and steam for 15 minutes. After steaming, remove the bones, which will come out easily, and cut the fish into pieces. Pack the pieces into the jars, and to each quart of the food add 1 teaspoonful of salt. Next, fill each jar three-fourths full with boiling water and continue with the canning in the manner directed for meat.

STORING AND SERVING CANNED FOODS

104. After jars of canned food have been cooled and tested for leaks, carefully wiped with a damp cloth, and then wrapped and labeled, they are ready to be placed in storage. Such food should be stored in an orderly manner on shelves that may be covered to keep off dust, or in a large cupboard provided with doors that may be closed. The temperature of the room in which the canned foods are kept is of no great importance, but, in homes provided with cellars, the cellar is the logical place in which to store them.

Canned foods, no matter how well the canning may have been done, undergo gradual deterioration. Therefore, those kept for more than a year, will not be so good as those used during the first year after canning. If canned foods from a previous year are at hand when new cans are ready to be stored, the old ones should be placed to the front of the shelves and the new ones to the back, so that the old ones will be used up first.

105. Canned foods take the place of raw foods, and whether they should be cooked or not depends on the kind. In the case of vegetables, most of them may be made ready to serve simply by heating them, although they may be used in the preparation of many dishes, as is evident from the recipes throughout the lessons. In the case of fruits, some may be served just as they come from the can; however, there are many ways of using canned fruits in the making of desserts, as is pointed out in Fruit and Fruit Desserts. In the case of meats and fish, the food, if cooked before canning, may be prepared for serving simply by heating it; whereas, if it is canned raw, some cookery method for meat will have to be applied.

When foods are boiled, one reason for a change in taste is that oxygen is driven off by the boiling. Therefore, to improve the taste of canned foods that are to be served without any further preparation, it is advisable, when a jar is opened, to pour the contents into an open dish and thus expose it to the air.

In opening jars of canned fruit, care must be taken not to crack or nick either the top of the jar or its cover. The cover of any kind of jar will come off easily if a little air is admitted. Insert a knife blade between the cover and jar rubber of a glass-covered jar, but do not use a knife to loosen a metal top, as it may bend the edge in places. Hot water poured over the jar will assist in opening it.

SCORING CANNED FOODS

106. In order that the housewife may judge the quality of her own canned products according to standards that have been set by canning authorities, a score card, together with an explanation of the terms and the procedure, is here given. The beginner in canning will do well to score her own foods, so that any fault that may be found can be corrected when similar foods are canned at another time. In fact, the chief purpose of scoring any product is to learn of faults that may be corrected. The scoring should be done as impartially as if a disinterested person were doing it, and if the cause of any trouble is not readily apparent, pains should be taken to find it out.

SCORE CARD	PER CENT.
General appearance	10
Method of sealing	10
Proportion of food to liquid	10
Flavor	35
Texture of food	20
Color	15
Total	100

107. As a rule, scoring, or judging, is done at the time the canned food is to be opened and used.

The general appearance is judged before the jar is opened. If a jar of food is well and symmetrically packed and has clear liquid and a good color, it should receive a perfect score of 10.

The method of sealing must also be judged before the can is opened. A properly filled jar with the rubber and cover in good condition and tightly sealed should receive a perfect score of 10.

The proportion of food to liquid should score 10. The jars should be as full of uncrushed food as possible, and the liquid that has been added should fill all crevices to the very edge of the jar.

The flavor is judged after the can is opened, and if it is perfect, it is entitled to a score of 35. The flavor of canned fruit is injured by any kind of spoiling, such as molding, fermentation, etc. Fruits canned in good condition should retain the characteristic flavor of the fresh fruits; also, they should contain sufficient sugar to be agreeably sweet, but no more. Canned vegetables should retain their characteristic flavors, with no sour, musty, nor disagreeable taste, and be slightly salty. Canned meats and fish should also possess their characteristic flavors.

The texture of food is entitled to a score of 20 if it is perfect. The canned food should be whole; that is, in the original pieces as they were put into the can. Underripe fruit or insufficiently cooked fruit or vegetables do not have the proper texture; neither do overripe or uncooked foods.

The color of canned food merits a score of 15 if it is right. Fruits and vegetables should have retained their natural color. Fading after canning may be prevented by wrapping the cans, as has been explained.

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DRYING

PRINCIPLES OF DRYING

108. DRYING consists in removing the moisture contained in foods by evaporation and thus rendering them less susceptible to the attacks of undesirable bacteria. Dried foods, as foods so treated are called, will not replace fresh or canned foods. However, they are valuable in many cases and possess some advantages over such foods. For example, the weight of dried foods is very greatly reduced, the storage space required by them is much less, and they are easy to keep without spoiling and easy to transport. Likewise, the containers for such foods are less costly than those required for canned foods and they are easily procured, since paper boxes or paper bags are satisfactory. In fact, the housewife, by taking care of the bags and boxes that come into the home, can easily provide all the containers she will possibly need at practically no cost.

109. The water in food that is to be dried may be evaporated by applying heat, by bringing the food in contact with moving air, or by subjecting it to a combination of both of these methods. The heat for drying may be obtained from the sun, as in the sun-drying method, or from the stove, as in the stove-drying method, while moving air for evaporating moisture may be obtained from an electric fan, as in the electric-fan drying method.

In the application of any of these drying methods, however, it is important to note that the more surface of food there is exposed, the more quickly will evaporation take place. Drying should therefore be done on devices constructed in such a way that air may pass up through food, as well as across its surface. In drying foods, the racks should be turned frequently, so that all parts will be exposed equally to the heat or the currents of air. Also, the food must be turned over often, in order that all parts will dry evenly.

110. Any fruit or vegetable may be dried if the method is properly applied, but there is usually more or less change in both the flavor and the color of the dried food. The more rapidly the drying can be done, the more natural will the color and flavor remain; whereas, the longer the process is continued, the greater will be this change.

Foods should be dried when they are in such quantity that they cannot be used to advantage in the raw state, when there is no market for them, when the owner cannot afford to give them away, and when home canning ceases to be practical and profitable. In other words, if it is not practical to save foods in another way, they should be dried.

DRYING METHODS

111. DEVICES FOR DRYING.--Many manufactured devices may be had for the drying of foods. Some are made so that they may be placed on top of a stove, like that shown in Fig. 23. This device is in the form of a metal box. It has a tray for holding the food to be dried, and underneath this is a space for holding water. Water is poured into this space through a funnel in one corner, and heat for drying is supplied by heating the water. Other devices are made so that they may be suspended over a stove, put into a stove oven, or used out of doors. Still others have a heating device placed inside of them. It is possible, however, to make drying devices in the home that will answer the purpose just as well as the devices that may be bought.

As has been stated, drying devices should be so made that the air may pass up through the food and across its surface. A pan, a platter, or a solid board, as will be readily seen, is not so good for drying as a wooden frame of convenient size that has small slats or fine, rustless-wire netting, or screening, attached to the bottom. Such a device may be covered with cheesecloth to keep out dirt. If it is to be used in the oven or set in the sun, a nail driven part way into each corner will provide feet and thus keep it from resting on the oven floor or any other flat surface.

For suspending food that is to be dried over a stove, a rack like that shown in Fig. 24 may be easily made in the home. As will be observed, it consists of three trays fastened together. These trays are suspended by four strings tied to another string that runs over small pulleys. The pulleys are attached to a wooden brace that is secured to the kitchen wall. The pulleys and string permit the rack to be raised or lowered, so that the food may be easily put into and taken out of the trays.

[Illustration: FIG. 24]

112. SUN-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried in the sun, spread it in a single layer on each tray, cover the trays so that no dirt will fall into them, and set them out of doors so that the sun's rays will strike them. Glass covers will help to increase the heat from the sun. As the sun changes, change the position of the trays or turn them. Food that is being dried outdoors should be brought into the house when the sun goes down and put out again the following morning. This procedure should be kept up until the food is so dry as to be leathery; that is, in a condition that will permit of bending without cracking.

113. STOVE-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried by the stove-drying method, it may be placed in the oven, on top of the stove, or suspended above the stove.

114. If the oven is to be used, a device that fits the oven should be employed. Spread the food on the trays in single layers, and put the device into the oven. The temperature of the oven demands attention in this method. Only a very moderate heat may be applied at first, 110 degrees Fahrenheit being considered the ideal temperature for beginning. As it is difficult to hold an oven at such a low temperature if a fire is burning, the oven door should be left open to admit air. The temperature of the oven of a coal stove in which the fire is banked or is being allowed to go out is usually ideal for drying foods. If desired, the heat of an oven may be gradually increased to about 180 degrees as the food dries; but the application of greater heat is liable to scorch the food and injure its flavor. The food must be turned often to permit it to dry evenly.

115. If food is to be dried on top of the stove, the device shown in Fig. 23 will prove satisfactory. The same arrangement may be improvised by placing a metal tray over a large flat vessel of water. Place the food to be dried in a single layer on the tray over the water. Let the water boil and keep it boiling, and turn the food frequently so that the heat will be applied to all sides. Continue this process until the food is leathery, when it may be stored.

116. If food is to be dried in a rack suspended above the stove, a rack like that shown in Fig. 24 should be used. Cover the trays in the rack with a single layer of food, and dry it to the leathery stage, when it may be removed and stored. In using this device, only a coal or a wood stove is practical. When the heat coming from the stove is not great, the rack may be allowed to come close to it, and when the heat is intense the rack may be drawn up. Regulating the distance of the rack from the stove will tend to keep the food at a uniform temperature and allow it to dry evenly, especially when the food is turned from time to time.

117. ELECTRIC-FAN DRYING METHOD.--If a house is wired for electricity, drying foods by means of the air-currents generated by a moving electric fan is a simple matter. Use devices like those required for the sun and oven-drying methods. Spread the foods to be dried on the trays in a single thin layer, and arrange them so that the air from the electric fan will blow over them. Turn the trays as the food dries, so that one part does not dry sooner than another; also, turn the food frequently so as to expose all parts alike. If the fan can be placed so as to blow across a stove and thus blow heated air on the food, it will dry more quickly. A very warm kitchen is an excellent place in which to do the work with an electric fan, as the combination of air and heat does the work more rapidly than either one used alone.

118. COMBINATION DRYING METHODS.--A combination of any of the drying methods mentioned may be used effectively. Drying may be started in the sun and completed in the oven, or it may be started with an electric fan and completed in the sun or the oven. Any means whereby the time required for drying may be shortened is advantageous.

DIRECTIONS FOR DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

119. PREPARATION OF FOODS FOR DRYING.--The correct preparation of the foods before drying is very important. The thinner and smaller the pieces to be dried are cut, the more quickly may the process be completed. Any skins or hulls that would prevent the rapid evaporation of moisture from the food must be removed or broken, and every raw food that is to be dried must first be immersed in salt water made in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water, as this prevents discoloring to a great extent.

120. STRING BEANS.--Beans for drying should be selected while they are young and tender. Wash them and remove the strings if this is necessary. Cut them in half, lengthwise, with a sharp knife. Drop them into salt water, remove, and spread on the drying trays. Dry by any method selected.

121. CORN.--Corn that is to be dried should be at the dough stage; younger corn contains too much water for good results. Prepare the corn by husking it and removing the silk. Then blanch it in boiling water for 5 minutes, after which cut off the grains close to the cob with a sharp knife. Spread these on the drying trays and proceed according to the method desired.

122. GREENS.--Wash the greens thoroughly. Cut across the leaves several times. Drop them into salt water, remove, and spread on the drying trays. Dry by any method selected.

123. TUBER AND ROOT VEGETABLES.--Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, carrots, parsnips, and even onions may be successfully dried. First peel or scrape them. Then slice or cut them into small pieces. Drop them into salt water, remove from the water, and spread them on the drying trays. Dry them by the method selected.

124. SMALL FRUITS.--Berries, cherries, and other small fruits may be dried, but since they contain considerable water, the drying is not accomplished very rapidly. Ripe, firm fruit should be selected and cleaned. Cherries should have the seeds, or pits, removed. Such fruits must be dried as quickly as possible, or they will spoil in the process.

125. APPLES, QUINCES, AND PEARS.--In order to dry apples, quinces, and pears, wash, peel, core, and cut the fruit into eighths. Put the peeled fruit into the salt water and keep it there until all are peeled and cut and ready to dry. Then spread the cut pieces in a thin layer on the drying trays and proceed according to the method desired.

126. PEACHES AND APRICOTS.--Peaches and apricots are most easily dried with the skin on. Wash them thoroughly and, in the case of peaches, rub the fuzz off the skins. Cut the fruit into halves, remove the seeds, or stones, and drop the halves into salt water and keep them there until they are ready to be placed on the drying trays. Dry by any process desired.

STORING AND COOKING DRIED FOODS

127. When foods are taken from the various drying devices to be stored, they still contain a very small quantity of moisture. This moisture, however, is not distributed evenly, because some of the pieces of food are larger than others, or some have been exposed more than others to heat or air in drying. To offset this unequal drying, the containers in which the foods are to be stored should not be closed permanently as soon as the food is put into them. Rather, once a day, for about 3 days, the food should be poured from one container into another and back again several times. This will mix all the food and distribute the moisture equally.

128. The object in storing dried foods is to keep them as dry as possible; that is, not to allow them to absorb moisture from the air. The best containers in which they may be placed are those coated with paraffin. Paper bags or boxes may be prepared in the home by dipping them into paraffin, although heavy paper containers already covered with paraffin may be bought in supply stores. Heavy paper or cloth bags may be used, provided they are stored in a dry place where there is no danger from rats and mice. Containers of any kind should be securely tied before storing them permanently. Bags and boxes of dried food are preferably suspended from rafters in an attic, but if this is not possible a rack or a bin located in a place that is not damp will answer.

It is well, in storing dried foods, to use containers that will hold only a small quantity of food, so that when some is taken out to be cooked a large amount will not be exposed. It is best to store just enough for a meal or two in each container.

129. Before dried foods are cooked, as much as possible of the water evaporated in drying should be restored. In order to do this, soaking is necessary. The dried food should be put into cold salt water made in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of water and soaked for at least 1/2 hour. The salt water seems to help restore the original color of the food. When dried vegetables are to be cooked, they should be cooked in the salt water in which they are soaked; when dried fruits are to be cooked, the salt water should be poured off and fresh water used. Long, slow cooking at a low temperature is better for all kinds of dried foods than rapid cooking. The fireless cooker will be found valuable for cooking dried foods.

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CANNING AND DRYING
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give three reasons for canning food.

(2) What foods may be canned?

(3) (a) How may satisfactory canning equipment be provided at little or no cost? (b) What metals are not good for canning or preserving kettles?

(4) (a) What are the requirements for satisfactory types of jars? (b) What are the qualities of good jar rubbers?

(5) What kind of tin cans should be used for canning fruits or vegetables that contain acid?

(6) (a) Why should care be exercised in the selection of foods to be canned? (b) What points must be considered in the selection of foods for canning?

(7) Why do canned foods spoil?

(8) How may canned foods be prevented from spoiling?

(9) (a) What are spores? (b) What connection have spores with the spoiling of canned food?

(10) Mention three things that assist in the keeping of canned foods.

(11) (a) How should jar covers and rubbers be treated in the open-kettle canning method? (b) Describe the filling and closing of jars in this method.

(12) (a) Describe the utensil used for processing in the one-period cold-pack canning method. (b) How should jars, covers, and rubbers be treated in this method?

(13) (a) How are foods blanched and scalded, and why are blanching and scalding done? (b) How are foods cold-dipped, and why is cold-dipping done?

(14) (a) How should foods be packed in jars in the cold-pack canning method? (b) How should the rubber and cover be adjusted before processing? (c) When should you begin to count the boiling time for food that is being processed in the water bath?

(15) (a) How and when should jars be closed in the cold-pack method? (b) How should jars of food be cooled?

(16) (a) How should jars of food be treated for storage? (b) How should they be stored?

(17) Mention some advantages of dried foods over fresh or canned ones.

(18) What important points should be considered in the process of drying food?

(19) What are the proportions of salt and water into which foods that discolor are placed before they are canned or dried?

(20) What precautions should be observed in the storing of dried foods?

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