VALUE OF EGGS AS FOOD

DESCRIPTION OF EGGS AND PLACE IN THE DIET

1. Eggs are of great importance in the diet, and to appreciate this fact fully the true nature of this food must be understood. For domestic use, the eggs of guinea hens, turkeys, ducks, and geese occasionally find favor, but as eggs laid by hens are the kind that is commonly used, it is to such eggs that this Section is devoted. A hen's egg may really be considered as an undeveloped chicken, because it contains all the elements required to build the body of the chick and provide it with the energy it needs to pick its way into the world. When it emerges from the shell, it is fully developed, and in a short time it begins an independent existence, seeking and finding its own food. The fact that eggs store so much nutritive material explains to some extent why they are a valuable source of food for man and why they are used so extensively. However, as in the case of milk, the elements that eggs contain are not in just the right proportion for the sole nourishment of a human being, so they must generally be used in combination with other foods.

2. Most persons are familiar with the appearance of eggs, but in order that satisfactory results may be obtained in their selection, care, and cooking, it will be necessary to look into the details of their composition. As is well known, an egg consists of a porous shell lined with a fine, but tough, membrane that encloses the white and the yolk and serves to protect them. The yolk is divided from the white by a delicate membrane, which permits it to be separated from the white when an egg is carefully broken. This membrane extends to each end of the shell in the form of a small cord, and it is so fastened to the shell as to hold the yolk evenly suspended. The porous nature of an egg shell is required to give air to the developing chick, but it is this characteristic that permits eggs to spoil as they grow old and are exposed to air, for through these minute pores, or openings, the water in the egg evaporates and air and bacteria enter. Of course, as the water evaporates and is replaced by air, the egg becomes lighter. Because of this fact, the freshness of eggs can be determined by placing them in water. When they are fresh, they will sink in cold water, but as they decompose they become lighter and will float.

Since it is known that the spoiling of eggs is due to the entrance of air through the porous shell, it may be inferred that their decay may be prevented either by protecting the shell so that air cannot enter or by keeping the eggs at so low a temperature that bacteria cannot grow. Although stored eggs always deteriorate more or less, both of these methods of preservation have proved very satisfactory, the former being used largely in the home and the latter finding its solution in cold storage. A knowledge of how eggs can be preserved, however, is of great value, for if there were no means of preservation and eventual marketing, the price of eggs would at times rise to actual prohibitive limits.

3. That eggs as an article of food are growing in importance is indicated by the fact that their production has come to be a large and widely distributed industry. Owing to the private consumption and sale of eggs, an accurate statement of the number of eggs produced is difficult to give. Still, in a report, the United States Bureau of Agriculture estimated the value of the yearly egg production at something more than three million dollars, with an allowance of about 210 eggs, or 17-1/2 dozen, per capita each year, or 4 eggs a week for each person. These figures, however, are only suggestive of the production, use, and value of eggs, for as the population increases so does the use of eggs. In fact, they are proving to be almost indispensable to the cook, the baker, the manufacturers of certain foods, and many others.

4. With the increase in the demand for eggs has come a corresponding steady advance in the money value of this product and, consequently, an increase in its price. The housewife who would practice economy in cookery can readily see, therefore, that with reference to the number of eggs required and the ways in which they are used, she must choose carefully the recipes and methods she employs. If the eggs are always considered a part of a meal, their use is seldom an extravagance, even at such high prices as they sometimes attain. On the other hand, if a dessert that requires the use of many eggs is added to a meal that is itself sufficient in food value, it is not unreasonable to regard such use of eggs as an extravagance. A point that should be taken into consideration in the use of eggs in the diet, especially when their price seems very high, is that there is no waste matter in them, unless the shell is regarded as waste. Therefore, they are often more economical than other foods that can be bought for less money.

It must not be understood, however, that eggs are used only as an article of diet. They are also a very important food ingredient, being employed in the preparation of many kinds of dishes. For instance, they are often used to thicken custards, sauces, etc.; to clarify soups and jellies; to lighten cakes, puddings, hot breads, and other baked mixtures; to form the basis for salad dressings; and to combine or hold together many varieties of food.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF EGGS

5. Like milk, eggs are often spoken of as a perfect food. Still, as has been pointed out, they are not a perfect food for man, but they are of especial nutritive value and should be used freely in the diet just as long as their cost neither limits nor prohibits their use. An idea of how they compare with other nutritious foods can be obtained from Fig. 1, which shows that eight eggs are equal in food value to 1 quart of milk or 1 pound and 5 ounces of beefsteak. A better understanding of their food value, however, can be gained from a study of their composition.

6. Since an egg is an undeveloped chick that requires only the addition of warmth to develop it into a living, moving creature made of muscles, bones, and blood, it is evident that this food contains considerable tissue-building and energy-producing material. The exact proportion of this material, as well as the other substances found in eggs, is given in the food chart shown in Essentials of Cookery, Part 1. The chart relating to the composition of eggs points out that the edible portion of the whole egg consists of 73.7 per cent. of water, 14.8 per cent. of protein, 10.5 per cent. of fat, and about 1 per cent. of ash, or mineral matter. The protein, which is chiefly in the form of albumen, and the fat are the most digestible of these elements, while the mineral constituents are as valuable for the growing child as for the chick. When the total weight of an egg is taken into consideration, the shell constitutes about 11 per cent., the yolk 32 per cent., and the white 57 per cent. The composition of the yolk and the white differs somewhat, the yolk having the greater food value, a fact that is also clearly indicated in the chart. The white contains a larger proportion of water than the yolk, but the yolk contains the most of the fat and more protein and mineral matter, or ash, than the white. In addition, the chart shows that the number of calories to the pound of whole egg is 700, of egg yolk is 1,608, and of egg white is 265.

7. PROTEIN IN EGGS.--The nature of the food substances in eggs is of nearly as great importance as their amount, for they not only determine the value of this food in the body, but influence its cooking. That protein is present in both the yolk and the white is apparent from the fact that they coagulate when heat is applied. Because eggs are high in protein, containing 14.8 per cent. of this substance, they may be regarded as equivalent to a meat dish, and it is only when they are extremely high in price that they cannot be frequently substituted for meat to advantage. They are often used to take the place of milk, too, for eggs and milk are more alike in nutritive value than any other two protein foods; but, of the two, milk yields the cheaper form of protein. Like meat and milk, eggs are rich in all those food materials which enter into the construction of bone, muscle, and blood.

8. FAT IN EGGS.--A study of the food chart previously mentioned will show that eggs contain proportionately almost as much fat as protein and that nearly all this fat is found in the yolk. Since fat produces more heat or energy, weight for weight, than any other food substance, and since eggs contain neither starch nor sugar, it is evident that the fat of this food is the main source of the energy-producing material. Fat in eggs occurs in the form of an emulsion, or tiny particles, and, like the fat of milk, is very readily digested. It is for this reason that both of these foods are particularly well adapted to the diet of both children and adults. The presence of quantities of protein and fat and the absence of carbohydrate in eggs indicate that the proper thing to combine with this food, in order to have a well-balanced meal when eggs are eaten, is carbohydrate in some form.

9. MINERALS IN EGGS.--Eggs are especially valuable for the mineral salts they contain, chief among which are lime, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, potassium, and sodium. For this reason, the addition of eggs to any kind of diet supplies a large amount of the minerals that are needed for bone, blood, and tissue building. A favorable point concerning the minerals found in eggs is that they are not affected to any extent by cooking. Therefore, in the preparation of any dish, if eggs are added to other foods, that dish will contain an additional amount of mineral salts, plus the nutritive value of the eggs.

10. DIGESTIBILITY OF EGGS.--In connection with the discussion of the food substances of which eggs are composed, it will be well to note how these affect the digestibility of this food. But just what is meant by this characteristic with reference to eggs must first be understood. In some foods, digestibility may mean the length of time required for them to digest; in others, the completeness of the digestion; and in still others, the ease and comfort with which the process of digestion proceeds. In the case of eggs, digestibility refers to the quantity of this food that is absorbed, that is, actually dissolved and permitted to enter the blood stream. The nutritive value of eggs is not so high as would naturally be supposed, for, although the protein, fat, and mineral salts of an egg make up about one-fourth of its contents, one egg equals in nutritive value only 1/2 cupful of milk, a small potato, or a medium-sized apple. However, when the proportion of the nutritive material that the body retains from this food, or its digestibility, is considered, eggs rank extremely high, it having been determined by experiments that 97 per cent. of the protein and 95 per cent. of the fat are assimilated. A point worthy of note in this connection, though, is that eggs contain no cellulose, such as that found in grains, vegetables, and fruits. Therefore, in order to add the much-needed bulk to the diet, foods that do contain cellulose should be served with eggs.

11. Whether or not the cooking of eggs has any effect on their digestibility is a matter that has also been investigated. The results of the experiments made indicate that cooking makes some difference with the rate of digestion, but very little with its thoroughness. So far as the rapidity of digestion is concerned, there is very little difference between raw eggs and slightly cooked eggs; but hard-cooked eggs, although they may be digested as completely as soft-cooked ones, require longer time for the accomplishment of the process. This is due to the fact that the whites of hard-cooked eggs are so firm in texture that, unless they are finely chopped or thoroughly masticated, the digestive juices are not able to act on them quickly. As a result, portions of them may escape digestion or remain in the digestive tract for some time and decompose. For this reason, hard-cooked eggs are usually excluded from the diet of children and invalids, and even healthy adults should be careful to masticate them thoroughly.

SELECTION OF EGGS

12. On first thought it would seem as if there is very little to guide the housewife in the selection of eggs, it being extremely difficult to tell from their external appearance whether or not they are fresh or stale. As a rule, she must trust largely to the honesty of the person from whom she buys eggs. Still she need not depend entirely on the dealer's word, for, at least to a certain extent, there are ways in which she may judge the quality of eggs. Because of the great value of eggs as a food and for cooking purposes, it is important that the housewife make use of all available information on this matter and, in addition, become familiar with the trade practices in the egg industry.

13. MARKETING OF EGGS.--As is generally known, hens lay a large number of eggs in the spring of the year, but they do not lay readily in the cold winter months; and not alone are the greatest quantities of eggs produced in April and May, but those laid at this time are of the best quality. Because of this condition and in order that the demand during the time of scarcity may be supplied, it is necessary that a considerable number of eggs be preserved when they are comparatively cheap and abundant. Also, in the preserving of eggs for future use, it is of the greatest importance that they be kept in the best possible condition and manner, so that when they are used, months after they are laid, they may be as good as it is possible to have them.

The advance made in storage and transportation methods in recent years has done much toward making the egg supply uniform all the year around. Not long ago, because of inadequate means of storage and shipping, eggs were sold only a short distance from the place where they were produced. However, with the coming of cold storage and improved methods of shipping, eggs have been changed from a perishable and more or less seasonable food to a staple one. Now it is possible to collect them in large quantities, to keep them for a considerable time before selling them, and to ship them long distances. To safeguard the public, though, authorities have set a time limit for the storage of eggs, the legal time they may be kept being 8 months. By this is meant that eggs placed in the warehouse in May must be released or sold in December; whereas, those stored in June must be released no later than January.

14. Eggs that have been kept too long in storage are characterized by a musty odor and flavor, the breaking of the yolk and its mixing with the white, and a watery condition of the white. Such eggs, of course, cannot be sold legally. Those which may be placed on the market are graded according to their freshness, cleanliness, size, cracks, and color. With the exception of their freshness, these points can be readily told from the appearance of the eggs; but, in order to determine whether an egg is fresh or not, it is generally put through a process known as candling, by which the interior condition of the egg can be ascertained.

In the grading of eggs, all those of the best size, color, and condition are sold under a particular trade name and bring a high or a low price, according to the grading. Others that are not so perfect are put in another grade and sell for prices that vary according to the demand. Eggs, of course, differ in appearance and in many cases they are sorted in order to satisfy the demand. For instance, in some localities, eggs having a brown shell sell for the highest price, while in other places, eggs having a white shell are in the greatest demand and bring the highest price. Unsorted eggs are not held in much favor and do not bring so good a price as those which are all one color. Many persons have an idea that the color of the shell of an egg bears some relation to its nutritive value and flavor. However, authorities on foods agree that, other things being alike, the edible portion of white-shelled eggs has essentially the same composition and nutritive value as that of dark-shelled eggs.

15. QUALITY OF EGGS.--The natural quality of eggs depends largely on the food of the hens and their conditions of living. Because of this fact, the selection, breeding, and care of fowls have developed into a science, particularly since the production of eggs has grown into an industry. When the quality itself is to be determined, all the characteristics of eggs must be taken into consideration; still there is one particular point on which the quality of eggs depends, and that is their freshness. Various agencies, however, are constantly at work to render this quality inferior. Chief among these are the molds and bacteria that pass through the porous shells of eggs that have been improperly cared for or have become contaminated by being allowed to remain in unclean surroundings. Such bacteria are responsible for the unpleasant flavors that are found in bad eggs. Because of their harmful effect, every effort should be made to prevent the entrance of the germs that cause decay, and, as has been stated, the best way in which to accomplish this is to protect the shell. If it is found that bacteria have entered, the eggs will become unfit for use quickly unless their growth is prevented. This may be done by storing the eggs at a temperature that will keep the bacteria dormant, or inert.

16. If the eggs are kept under the proper conditions, they will not actually spoil for a long time; but it is seldom that they are not more or less affected by storage of any kind that covers a period of several months. One change that can always be looked for in such eggs is in the air space at the broad end. When an egg is first laid, this air space is small, but since the water contained in the egg slowly evaporates through the porous shell it increases in size as the egg grows staler. For this reason, the freshness of an egg can often be determined by the size of this air space.

In addition, the purposes for which eggs are used are somewhat affected by their storage. A stale egg, although it may not be actually spoiled to the extent that it cannot be used as food, will not produce such good results in a cooking process as a fresh egg, especially if it is used for leavening. In fact, it is impossible to produce the desired results with eggs that have undergone a certain amount of change, even though their odor and their flavor do not indicate that they are spoiled.

17. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE MARKET.--While, as has been mentioned, the housewife must depend considerably on the dealer's word as to the freshness of the eggs she purchases, it will be well for her to be familiar with the trade names of eggs and their meaning. The names used differ, of course, in various localities, but all large distributors grade and name eggs in much the same way. In deciding on the grade to which eggs belong, a certain number of points are given for color, size, freshness, and appearance, and the sum total of these points determines the grade, a special name being given for each grade. For instance, eggs that can be graded 90 are called extra fancy; those which receive a grade of 80, fancy; those which are graded 70, strictly fresh; and those which can be graded only 60, cooking eggs. When eggs are put on the market under such names, it can be expected that the quality will correspond to the grade and the price will vary with the grade. Therefore, the trade name and the price are two of the principal ways in which the quality of eggs in the market may be judged.

18. Another way of judging the quality of eggs consists in observing the condition of the surface of the shell. When eggs are freshly laid, the shell is covered with a substance, called bloom, that gives it a feeling much like that of a thin lime coating deposited in a pan after water boils. This coating disappears gradually as the egg is exposed to the air, but as long as it remains, the egg may be considered as fresh and germ-proof. While this way of determining freshness is probably the quickest, it is possible that the quality of some eggs from which the bloom has recently disappeared has not been injured.

19. When eggs are selected in the market, certain points in their appearance should also be noted. If eggs of the best quality are desired, medium-sized ones that are uniform in size and color should be selected. With regard to shape, they should have a comparatively long oval shell, one end of which is blunt and the other, a sharp curve.

20. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE HOME.--After eggs have been received in the home, several simple tests for determining their freshness can be applied in addition to the ones already mentioned. A rather indefinite test, but one that is sometimes applied to determine the freshness of an egg, is to shake it. However, to be able to carry out this test successfully, it is well to understand the interior structure of an egg. Fig. 2 illustrates this clearly. At a is shown the air space previously mentioned; at b, the spiral cords that run from the yolk to each end of the egg and hold the yolk in place; at c, the yolk; and at d, the white. When the water inside the shell evaporates, the yolk and white shrink so much that they can be felt moving from side to side when the egg is shaken. The staler the egg, the more pronounced does the movement become. This method should be applied only immediately before the egg is to be used, as the thin membrane between the yolk and the white and the spiral cords that hold up the yolk are liable to be disturbed by the shaking. If they are broken, the yolk will settle and finally adhere to the shell in case the egg is stored for any length of time after that.

21. If nothing has been done to preserve eggs, the simple test for freshness illustrated in Fig. 3, which consists in placing the eggs in a glass containing water, will be found effective. A perfectly fresh egg will sink when it is put into the water, but if the egg is 3 weeks old the broad end will rise slightly from the bottom of the glass. An egg that is 3 months old will sink into water until only a slight portion of the shell remains exposed; whereas, if the egg is older or stale, it will rise in the water until nearly half of it is exposed.

22. The test known as candling, which is usually applied to eggs before they are put on the market, can also be practiced by the housewife in the home. This method of determining the freshness of eggs consists in placing a piece of cardboard containing a hole a little smaller than an egg between the eye and a light, which may be from a lamp, a gas jet, or an electric light, and holding the egg in front of the light in the manner shown in Fig. 4. The rays of light passing through the egg show the condition of the egg, the size of its air space, and the growth of mold or the spoiling of the egg by any ordinary means.

In Fig. 5 is shown how an egg at various stages of freshness appears when candled. When an egg is fresh, it will appear as in (a); that is, the yolk will be barely distinguishable from the white except as a slightly darker area in the center of the egg, and the entire egg will appear clear and bright and free from spots. In an egg that is a little older, candling will reveal a slightly darker yolk, a cloudy white, and a larger air space, as in (b). In a watery egg, or one that is beginning to spoil, various dark spots and blotches usually develop, as view (c) indicates. When an egg is rotten, the contents of the shell will look dark in candling and the yolk will appear to be mixed with the white, as in (d).

23. If the housewife does not wish to resort to candling, she may determine the condition of an egg by breaking it into a saucer and examining it carefully. If the egg is newly laid, no odor will be detected and the white will be clear, elastic, and rather thick; also, where it joins the yolk it will be almost solid. The yolk of such an egg will have an even yellow color, without lighter or darker spots and, as shown in Fig. 6 (a), will stand up well from the surface of the white. Sometimes a small spot of blood may be detected on the yolk of a perfectly fresh egg, but, while this is not pleasant to look at, it does not affect the quality of the egg. When an egg that is not real fresh is broken into a saucer, the yolk will lie flat, as in (b). In an egg that is quite stale, the membrane surrounding the yolk is easily destroyed, so that even when such an egg is broken carefully the yolk and the white are likely to run together.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION

24. As has been implied in the discussion given thus far, eggs will deteriorate or spoil in a comparatively short time unless something is done to preserve them. In view of the eggs she keeps on hand at home, as well as those she buys, the causes of spoiling and the ways in which to prevent spoiling are matters with which the housewife should be familiar, particularly if she would secure for her family eggs of the best quality at prices that are not beyond her means. The spoiling of eggs is due to decomposition, which is caused by molds or bacteria that result from accidental causes, and, in fertile eggs, to the germination and development of the chick, which is a natural process. The loss of quality resulting from molds and bacteria in the egg is brought about by their growth and by the formation of chemical compounds, which give spoiled eggs their peculiar appearance, taste, and odor. Some of these molds are not injurious to health, while others may give rise to more or less serious illness.

25. Various methods have been devised whereby their rapid deterioration may be prevented, and a knowledge of these is important to those who have occasion to purchase eggs or to keep them over from the season of plenty to the season of scarcity. The method followed to prevent losses due to the development of the embryo consists in the production of infertile eggs--that is, eggs that are non-productive. This is a point that is as well worth remembering in the home production of eggs as it is in professional poultry raising. The method employed to prevent the infection of eggs by molds and bacteria is to keep them clean and dry from the time they are laid until they are finally used.

26. While the preservation of eggs is carried on to a greater extent at present than formerly, the idea is neither new nor original; indeed, it has been practiced for many years by the people of some foreign countries. For instance, in some sections of China, duck eggs are preserved by covering them with a layer of mud, and such eggs are often kept for a year or more before they are eaten. However, eggs stored in this way decompose and their odor and flavor disappear before they are used, so that they must usually be hard boiled before they can be eaten. Egg preservation such as is practiced in the United States is the opposite of this and attempts to prevent not only ripening processes and putrefactive changes but any bacterial or other changes that lessen the original quality. It will be well to note, however, that eggs preserved for any length of time deteriorate to some extent and cannot be expected to be equally as good as fresh eggs.

COMMERCIAL PRESERVATION OF EGGS

27. The usual market method of preserving eggs is by cold storage, an industry that has developed to vast proportions in recent years. The success of this method depends on the fact that germs causing decomposition will not live in a low temperature. While the plan of storing eggs is responsible for their high price at certain times, it is also a means of supplying eggs to many persons who would otherwise not be able to obtain them. The greatest point in favor of this plan, however, is that it makes possible the marketing of quantities of eggs during the winter season of scarcity at a price that, although somewhat high at times, is much more moderate than it would be if it were not possible to store eggs in large quantities.

28. In order that advantage may be taken of favorable climatic conditions, eggs are commonly purchased for storage as early in the year as they are abundant. They are selected with great care, only those which are clean, sound, and fresh being used. These eggs are packed in clean cases, and then placed in warehouses where they are kept at a temperature just above freezing, or one that ranges from 32 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. In such storage, precaution is usually taken to prevent the eggs from freezing, for while freezing does not necessarily injure them for immediate use it breaks the shell because of the contraction that occurs. While the eggs are in storage, they are also protected as far as possible from air circulation, as this increases evaporation and causes the contents of eggs to shrink. To prevent the yolks from settling to one side, and finally adhering to the shell, the eggs are turned frequently. The usual limits of storage are from 6 to 9 months, but eggs are not generally allowed to remain in storage more than 8 months. When taken out at the end of that time, it will be found that they have deteriorated very little, and while they cannot compete with the better grades of fresh eggs, they are as desirable as most of the eggs that can be purchased in the early fall when eggs are not plentiful.

29. Sometimes eggs are removed from the shells, stored for commercial use in containers of about 50 pounds each, and kept at the freezing point until they are to be used. Eggs in this form, which may be bought with the yolks and whites either mixed or separate, find a ready market in bakeries and restaurants, where large quantities of eggs are continually used. Such eggs remain good for any length of time while they are kept frozen, but they must be used immediately after they are removed from storage.

30. It is not always necessary to keep eggs at a cold temperature in order to preserve them, for a method that has proved very satisfactory is to reduce them to the form of powder by drying them. In this form, the bulk is greatly reduced, 1 pound of the dry material representing 30 to 40 eggs, and in order to prepare them for use in cooking they must be mixed with water. POWDERED EGGS, or desiccated eggs, as they are usually called, can be kept for an indefinite length of time without special care in storage, when they are wholesome and carefully handled. Tests that have been made show that eggs of this kind give fairly good results when used in cookery, but they are used principally by bakers, for they can be obtained more cheaply than fresh eggs, especially when it is difficult to secure eggs in other forms.

HOME PRESERVATION OF EGGS

31. The housewife who desires to run her household on an economical basis will not depend entirely on eggs that are commercially stored, but will take advantage of one of the many methods by which eggs may be successfully kept in the home. By being prudent in this matter, she will be prepared to supply her family with this commodity at times when the market price is high.

As many as twenty household methods have been tried out for the preserving of eggs, but each one is based on the theory that decay is hindered when the shell is covered with some substance that renders it air-tight and prevents evaporation or the entrance of bacteria and mold. Among the methods that have met with the most success are burying eggs in oats, bran, or salt; rubbing them with fat; dipping them in melted paraffin; covering them with varnish or shellac; and putting them down in lime water or in a solution of water glass.

No matter which of these methods is adopted, however, it will be well to note that only eggs laid in April, May, or June should be used for storage purposes, as these are the best ones laid during the year; also, that the eggs should always be packed with the small end down, because the yolk will not settle toward the small end so readily as toward the large end or the side.

32. Of these various ways of preserving eggs in the home, probably the oldest method is that of packing the eggs in oats, bran, or salt. This method is fairly effective, but the eggs preserved by it do not keep so long as eggs preserved by other methods, nor is their quality so good. Preserving eggs by completely covering the shells with fat, vaseline, paraffin, varnish, or other substance that will exclude the air but not impart flavor to the eggs, proves a more satisfactory method so far as the eggs are concerned, but it requires more time and handling. To assist in their preservation, eggs are sometimes immersed in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds. This process, which causes the white to harden slightly just inside of the shell, keeps the eggs fairly well, but it is rather difficult to accomplish, as the least overcooking renders the egg unfit for use as a raw egg.

As a result of many trials, it has been found that putting eggs down in the various solutions that are used for this purpose is the most effective way of preserving them under home conditions, provided, of course, the solutions in which the eggs are immersed do not flavor the eggs. Therefore, to assist the housewife, detailed directions for using lime water and water glass for this purpose are here given.

33. PRESERVATION WITH LIMEWATER.--To prepare limewater for the preservation of eggs, dissolve 1 pound or 1 pint of salt and 1 quart of finely slaked lime in 3 gallons of water, stir the solution at frequent intervals for a day or two, and then allow the liquid to settle. Place the eggs in tall stone crocks or kegs with their pointed ends turned down, filling the receptacles to within a few inches of the top. Pour the clear limewater over the eggs so arranged, allowing it to rise an inch or two above the top layer. Then stand the vessel in a cool place where the temperature will not exceed 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs so treated will keep for at least 6 or 8 months. The only objection to this plan is that the eggs preserved by it sometimes acquire a slight lime taste.

34. PRESERVATION WITH WATER GLASS.--Putting eggs down in a solution of water glass is without doubt the most satisfactory method of storing them in the home. So effective does this method prove that the housewife who has a convenient and proper storage room should not fail to take advantage of this way of laying up a supply of eggs.

The commercial form of water glass is usually a mixture of potassium and sodium silicate, which, besides being cheaper than that which is chemically pure, is the kind that is preferred for the purpose of preserving eggs. A good quality of it either in a sirup-like solution or in the form of a powder retails in drug or grocery stores for about 10 cents a pound. To make a solution of the desired strength to preserve eggs satisfactorily, dissolve 1 part of water glass in 7 parts of warm water that has first been boiled to drive off bacteria, mold, spores, etc. One quart of water glass will make sufficient solution to cover about 12 dozen eggs. With the solution thoroughly mixed, it is ready to pour over the eggs.

In selecting eggs for the purpose of storing, be careful to choose only those which are clean, fresh, and perfectly sound, and, if possible, infertile. It is advisable not to wash them before they are put into the preservative, for they will keep better if their bloom is not removed. Place the eggs in receptacles in the manner explained for preserving eggs in limewater, and over them pour the water-glass solution until they are all covered. If the eggs so prepared are stored in a cool place, they will keep as long as those preserved in limewater; besides, there will be no danger of their acquiring any foreign flavor.

COOKING OF EGGS

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

35. The successful preparation of eggs for their use as a food demands that certain points must be observed by the housewife. For instance, she must see that the eggs she uses are in the right condition; that the shells are properly broken for the most convenient removal of the egg; that the parts of the egg are separated in the right way in case the whites and the yolks are to be used separately; and that the eggs receive the right treatment for the purpose for which they are to be used. Attention to all these points not only will insure the most satisfactory results, but will enable the housewife to supply her family with food that is extremely wholesome and nutritious.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

36. Exterior Condition of Eggs.--As has been explained, clean eggs are the most desirable, but it is not advisable to wash eggs that are to be kept for even a short time, as washing them removes the natural coating that helps to prevent the entrance of bacteria. However, as it is necessary that the shells be perfectly clean before they are broken or before the eggs are cooked, the eggs may be washed or wiped with a damp cloth immediately before such processes.

37. BREAKING OF EGGS.--In cookery, it is usually desirable to break an egg shell so that the yolk will not run into the white; that is, so that these can be kept separate. While there are several methods of doing this, the housewife should adopt the one that is most convenient for her. A quick method that is often employed consists in striking the shell on the edge of the pan or the bowl into which the contents are to be put. A preferable method, however, is illustrated in Fig. 7. It consists in striking one side of the shell, midway between the ends, a sharp blow with the edge of a knife. The advantage of this method will be evident after a trial or two, for it will be found that the depth of the cut made by the knife can be so gauged that there will be little danger of breaking the yolk. Besides, fragments of the shell are not likely to fall into the bowl or the pan with the contents of the egg.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

38. SEPARATING OF EGGS.--Frequently recipes require that the yolks and whites of eggs be beaten separately before being added to the other ingredients. When this is the case, care must be exercised in taking the egg from the shell. The method by which this is most easily accomplished is illustrated in Fig. 8. As will be observed, the shell is first broken as nearly as possible into halves and then, while the egg is poured from 1/2 of the shell into the other, the white is dropped into a dish and the yolk is retained in the shell. During this process, the yolk should remain intact in its delicate membrane, for if it becomes mixed with the white the lightness of the white will be injured. To separate the yolk from the white is not difficult when eggs are fresh, but as they become stale the membrane surrounding the yolk grows weak and breaks easily. If the yolk breaks and any of it falls into the white, it must be completely removed before the white is beaten.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

39. BEATING OF EGGS.--Sometimes eggs are cooked in the shell and other times they are used alone just as they are removed from the shell, as in the frying and poaching processes; however, when they are to be combined with other ingredients, they are usually beaten. Eggs are beaten for the purpose of mixing the yolk and the white or of incorporating air to act as a leavening agent when the [Illustration: FIG. 9] eggs are heated in the cooking process. Various utensils, such as a fork, an egg whip, or an egg beater, may be employed for beating eggs, the one to select depending on the use to which the eggs are to be put. The rotary, or Dover, egg beater, previously described as a labor-saving device and illustrated in Fig. 9 (a), should be used to beat either whole eggs or the yolks of eggs when they are to be used in custards, mayonnaise, cakes, puddings, etc., as it will beat them sufficiently light for such purposes. However, for the beating of egg whites, use should be made of a fork or of an egg whip similar to that shown in (b), because the whites must be lifted instead of stirred for the incorporation of air, and it is only with a utensil of this kind that this can be accomplished. Then, too, more air can be incorporated into the whites and the volume of the egg thereby increased by means of a fork or an egg whip than by an egg beater. An important point to remember in this connection is that eggs can be beaten more successfully when they are cold and have had a pinch of salt added to them.

40. In the beating of eggs, it should be remembered that for some purposes, as in making some kinds of sponge cake, they are beaten until nearly frothy, as shown in Fig. 10, when they do not stand up nor cling to the whip; whereas, for other purposes, as in making meringue, they are beaten until they are stiff enough to stand up well and to adhere to the whip, as Fig. 11 shows. When egg whites are to be beaten stiff, care should be taken not to continue the beating too long. If this is done, they will become dry and will break up into small pieces, a condition that will mean a loss of some of the air that has been incorporated. It is well also to observe that egg whites should always be beaten in the same direction and that the same motion should be continued throughout the beating, for a change of direction or motion always causes a loss of air. A final precaution to take is never to allow egg whites to stand after they are beaten. If this is done, the leavening power of the eggs is reduced, because the air soon escapes from beaten eggs and leaves underneath them a clear liquid that can never be beaten up. For instance, eggs that are to be used for boiled icing should not be beaten until the sirup has finished boiling. However, eggs that have been separated but not beaten may stand for a couple of hours, provided they are covered and kept in a cool place.

POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING EGGS

41. As has been previously stated, the substance in eggs that requires special care in the cooking process is the protein, which occurs in this food in the form of albumen. Because of this, certain points concerning the treatment that the albumen requires should be kept in mind. In a raw egg, the albumen occurs in a semiliquid form, but it coagulates at a lower temperature than does the yolk, which contains a high percentage of fat. After coagulation, the consistency of the two parts is very different. The white is elastic and more or less tough, while the yolk, upon being thoroughly cooked, becomes powdery, or mealy, and breaks up into minute particles. The egg white begins to coagulate at 134 degrees Fahrenheit, and it becomes white and jellylike at 160 degrees. Bringing an egg to such a temperature produces a more desirable result than cooking it at a high temperature--boiling point, for instance--because the albumen, instead of becoming tough, as it does at a high temperature, acquires a soft, tender consistency that exists throughout the entire egg. An egg cooked in this way is more digestible and appetizing than one that is boiled until it becomes hard and tough.

42. The low temperature at which eggs will cook in the shell applies also to eggs when they are combined with other foods. Sometimes, however, a mixture in which eggs are one of the ingredients must be cooked at a high temperature because the materials mixed with them require it. This difficulty can be overcome when eggs are combined with starchy foods, such as corn starch, rice, and tapioca, that require long cooking. In such a case, all the ingredients except the eggs may be cooked the length of time they require, after which the eggs may be added so that they will cook just long enough to become coagulated. Longer cooking is liable to spoil the texture. Often the starchy mixture retains sufficient heat to set the eggs without further cooking after they are added.

43. A very nutritious way in which to prepare eggs when they are to be used for a dessert is to combine them with milk to form a custard, which, after being sweetened and flavored, is baked. The proportion that has been accepted as ideal to produce a dessert of the right thickness is one egg to each cupful of milk; however, an entire egg is not always required, as one yolk is often sufficient to thicken 1 cupful of milk. Care should be taken in the cooking of such custards, for if they are cooked too long or at too high a temperature they will curdle and whey; whereas, a properly cooked custard--that is, one cooked slowly at a low temperature and for the required length of time--will have a smooth, jellylike consistency. A slight variation in a dish of this kind is secured by reducing the number of eggs and thickening it with corn starch or some other starchy material. While such a mixture is not a true custard, it makes an excellent dessert.

44. In the cooking of mixtures containing eggs, no utensil proves quite so satisfactory as the double boiler, which has already been explained and illustrated. In fact, it is almost impossible to cook an egg mixture directly over the flame on account of the difficulty encountered in preventing the eggs from curdling. The low temperature at which cooking is possible in the double boiler makes it a comparatively simple matter to bring a mixture to the proper consistency without the formation of curds. Still, a certain amount of precaution must be taken even with a double boiler. If the degree of heat that is reached in this utensil is applied too long, the result will be no more satisfactory than when mixtures are exposed directly to the heat and cooked at a high temperature. While every effort should be made to cook mixtures containing eggs, such as custards or mayonnaise, so as to prevent curds from forming, occasionally they will form in spite of all that can be done. However, it is sometimes possible to remedy the matter by placing the vessel at once in cold water and beating the mixture rapidly with a Dover egg beater until the curds disappear. The cold water cools the mixture and prevents the formation of more curds, and the beating breaks up those which have already formed, provided they are not too hard.

45. In addition to the uses already mentioned, eggs have numerous other uses in cooking with which the housewife should be familiar. For instance, slightly beaten egg is used to a great extent to make crumbs or meal adhere to the surface of croquettes, meat, oysters, etc. that are to be sautÉd or fried in deep fat, a coating of this kind preventing the food from becoming soaked with grease. In addition, egg is used to stick flour together for certain kinds of dough, such as noodles. Then, again, it is much used to puff up mixtures and produce a hollow space in them, as in popovers and cream puffs. While such mixtures do not require beating, spongy mixtures, such as omelets and sponge cakes, do. In these, eggs are an important factor, and they must be thoroughly beaten in order to incorporate the air in small bubbles and thus produce the desired texture.

SERVING OF EGGS

46. The manner of serving eggs depends, of course, on the way in which they are cooked. One point, however, that should never be overlooked, so far as eggs that are to be served hot is concerned, is that they should be served immediately upon being prepared, so that they will not have an opportunity to become cool before being eaten. This applies particularly to any spongy mixture, such as puff omelet and soufflÉ, as these dishes shrink upon standing and become less appetizing in both appearance and texture.

Several ways of serving soft-cooked eggs are in practice, but probably the most satisfactory way is to serve them in egg cups. In case cups are used, they should be heated before being placed on the table, as the heat that they retain helps to keep the eggs warm. The eggs may be removed from the shell into the cup and eaten from the cup, or the unbroken egg may be placed point downwards in the small end of the cup, a small piece broken from the broad end of the shell, and the egg then eaten from the shell through the opening made in it. If egg cups are not available, the eggs may be removed from the shell and served in small dessert dishes, which also should be heated.

Many egg dishes are made more attractive and appetizing by means of a garnish of some kind. Small strips or triangular pieces of toast, sprays of parsley, celery leaves, lettuce, and strips of pimiento are very satisfactory for this purpose. If no other garnish is desired, just a sprinkling of paprika adds a touch of color.

47. In connection with the serving of eggs it will be well to note that they have a tendency to adhere to china and to discolor silver. Therefore, in the washing of china and the cleaning of silver that have been used in the serving of raw or slightly cooked eggs, much care should be exercised. Dishes in which eggs of this kind have been served should first be washed in cool water in order to remove all the egg, and then they should be thoroughly washed in hot water. If the hot water is applied first, the heat will cause the egg to coagulate and cling to the dishes. Silver that comes in contact with eggs tarnishes or becomes discolored through the action of the sulphur that is found in them, just as it does when it is exposed to the air. Dark spots that appear on silver from this source may be removed by means of a good silver cleaner.

EGG RECIPES

48. To enable the housewife to prepare many of the dishes already mentioned, as well as many other egg dishes, a number of recipes are here given. These recipes pertain to the cooking of eggs alone in various ways or to dishes in which eggs are the leading ingredient. There are, of course, numerous other dishes in which eggs are required, such as custards, cakes, mayonnaise, etc., but these are omitted here, as recipes for them are included in the lessons that pertain directly to them. In the first few recipes, the ingredients are omitted and merely directions given, for the eggs themselves are practically the only thing required, especially so far as the cooking is concerned. However, in the majority of cases, the ingredients are listed in the usual manner and explicit directions then given for carrying out the recipe.

49. SOFT-COOKED, OR JELLIED, EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked soft, or jellied, may be used for any meal in which plain eggs can be served. When properly prepared, they are both digestible and attractive, and any person who is able to eat eggs at all can eat them in this form.

To prepare soft-cooked, or jellied, eggs, first bring to the boiling point sufficient water to cover well the desired number of eggs, which is usually 1 pint of water to each egg. Then drop the eggs into the water carefully, remove the pan from the fire, place a cover on it, and set it on the back of the stove, where the water will not heat further nor cool too rapidly. Allow the eggs to remain in the water for 5 minutes.

When eggs cooked in this manner are served, they will be found to be the consistency of jelly all the way through. This method of cooking is preferable to boiling them for 3, 4, or 5 minutes, because boiling cooks the white just inside the shell very hard, while the yolk of the egg remains liquid.

50. POACHED EGGS.--Eggs properly poached make a very attractive breakfast dish, but the poaching should be well done in order to have the dish attractive and digestible. The food value of a plain poached egg is, of course, identically the same as that of a soft-cooked, a hard-cooked, or a raw egg. Eggs are usually poached in a shallow pan, although egg poachers are to be had.

To poach eggs in a shallow pan, pour into the pan sufficient water to cover the eggs that are to be cooked, add a teaspoonful of salt or of vinegar for each pint of water, and bring it to the boiling point. Remove the pan from the flame or reduce the heat so that the water will cease to boil. Break the eggs, one at a time, into a saucer and then slide them carefully into the water. Do not allow the water to boil after the eggs have been added, as boiling toughens the egg white and in addition causes considerable loss by tearing it into shreds. When the eggs are set, remove them carefully from the water and season them with salt and pepper. A convenient way to remove the eggs is to use a large spoon that has holes in the bowl for draining off the water. The salt or vinegar is added to the water before cooking in order to solidify the albumen and keep it in a mass.

An egg poacher contains a perforated section of metal just large enough to hold an egg. In poaching eggs with such a utensil, the perforated part is placed over a pan of boiling water; then the egg is carefully slid into it, and allowed to poach. Eggs prepared in this way are really cooked by steam and are found to be very satisfactory.

51. POACHED EGGS ON TOAST.--Eggs poached according to the directions just given can be made both appetizing and attractive by serving them on toast, as shown in Fig. 12; indeed, the addition of toast to a poached egg adds a quantity of carbohydrate, a food principle in which the egg is lacking. If the toast is buttered, fat is added, and such a dish, together with fruit, makes a very excellent breakfast. A slice of toast of medium size with the usual amount of butter and egg will have a food value of about 225 calories. In preparing poached eggs on toast, the usual custom is to butter slices of freshly made toast, moisten them with hot milk or cream, and place on them freshly poached eggs. The eggs are then seasoned with salt and pepper, and, if desired, a little piece of butter may be dropped on each one. To add to the attractiveness of such a dish, the toast may be cut round with a cookie cutter or a square piece may be cut diagonally to make two triangular pieces.

52. HARD-COOKED EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked hard may be served hot or cold, or they may be used in numerous ways, as, for example, to garnish a dish to which the addition of protein is desirable or to supply a high-protein dish for some light meal.

To prepare hard-cooked eggs, bring to the boiling point sufficient water to cover well the desired number of eggs, about 1 pint of water for each egg to be cooked usually being sufficient. Carefully drop the eggs into the water and place the pan on the back of the stove where the water will not boil, but will stay hot. Allow the eggs to remain in the hot water for 45 minutes; then remove them, and if they are desired hot, serve them at once. If they are not to be served hot, pour cold water over them and allow them to cool before removing the shells in order to prevent the yolks from discoloring.

When prepared in this way, eggs will be found to be tender and at the same time well cooked; whereas, if they are cooked at the boiling point, they are certain to be tough and leathery and consequently less digestible.

53. FRIED EGGS.--Fried eggs are likely to be more or less indigestible, because the hot fat coagulates the protein and makes it very hard. The addition of fat, however, increases the food value of the eggs to a certain extent. To fry eggs, melt enough butter or other fat in a frying pan to cover its surface well. Break the eggs one at a time into a saucer and slip them into the hot fat. Season with salt and pepper. Fry until the white has become well solidified on the bottom, and then either turn them over or put a few drops of water in the pan and cover it tight with a cover, so that the steam will cook the top of the egg. Fry until the desired degree of hardness has been obtained, and then serve.

54. SCRAMBLED EGGS.--A pleasing variety from the usual methods of preparation is offered by means of scrambled eggs, which are not difficult to make. Too long cooking, however, should be guarded against, for it will cause the protein in the eggs to become too hard and to separate from the liquid and will produce watery scrambled eggs. To be most satisfactory, they should be taken from the pan just before they have finished cooking, for the heat that they hold will complete it. Eggs prepared in this way, according to the accompanying recipe, may be served on toast or with ham and bacon. If they are served with meat, a smaller portion of meat should be given to a person than is ordinarily served.

SCRAMBLED EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 3/4 c. milk
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 2 Tb. butter

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk and seasonings. Melt the butter in a frying pan and, when the butter is hot, pour the egg mixture into it. As the eggs begin to thicken, stir them up from the bottom of the pan and continue to stir them until the entire mass has thickened slightly. Before the eggs are entirely cooked, remove them from the pan. Bacon and ham fat may be used instead of butter, and they are strongly recommended if they can be secured, for they lend an excellent flavor to scrambled eggs.

55. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO.--The addition of tomato to scrambled eggs lends an unusual flavor as well as a little variety to the dish. The same conditions apply to the cooking of scrambled eggs with tomato as apply to plain scrambled eggs; namely, that too long cooking ruins them. The onion included in the recipe here given may be omitted from the dish if it is not desirable. The fat to be used may be in the form of butter, although bacon or ham fat may be substituted to give an agreeable flavor.

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 3 Tb. fat
• 1 slice onion
• 1 c. stewed tomatoes
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 6 eggs

Put the fat into a frying pan, and when this grease is hot add the slice of onion and fry it until it is brown. Remove the onion from the fat, and add the stewed tomatoes, salt, and pepper. Then beat the eggs slightly and add them to the hot tomato. Stir the mixture slowly from the bottom of the pan until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the pan and serve hot.

56. SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST.--The addition of cheese to eggs, as in the accompanying recipe, makes a dish that is very high in protein and usually pleasing in flavor. So as not to overcook the eggs in this dish, they should be cooked only slightly in the pan, because they receive additional cooking when the dish is placed in the oven to melt the cheese. Browning the cheese slightly on top makes a very attractive dish, especially when garnished with parsley.

SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 3/4 c. milk
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 2 Tb. fat
• 1/2 c. grated cheese
• 6 slices of toast

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Melt the fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg mixture. Stir the mixture as it cooks until it has thickened slightly; then pour it over the slices of toast placed in a shallow pan. Sprinkle the grated cheese over the top, and place under a lighted broiler or in a very hot oven until the cheese melts. Remove to a platter garnish with parsley, and serve.

57. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM.--The accompanying recipe affords an excellent way in which to use up the little scraps of ham that may be cut from the bone when it is impossible to cut enough nice looking pieces to serve as a cold dish. Eggs prepared in this way will be found very tasty and will take the place of a meat dish for luncheon or supper.

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 1 c. milk
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 1 c. chopped cooked ham
• 2 Tb. fat

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, pepper, and ham. Melt the fat in a frying pan and scramble the mixture as directed in Art. 54 until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the stove and serve at once. If desired, this dish may be served on toast. Other left-over meat, such as roast beef or pork, may be used in place of ham, but such meats do not make so tasty a dish, the flavor of ham in such a combination being more desirable.

58. PLAIN OMELET.--The simplest type of omelet, which is known as plain omelet, does not differ materially from scrambled eggs, except that the whole is collected in a mass in an omelet shape. No difficulty will be experienced in making such an omelet if the directions in the recipe here given are followed explicitly. To make this dish more attractive, some food of a contrasting color, such as jelly or tomatoes, may be used for garnishing.

PLAIN OMELET
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 6 Tb. water
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 3 Tb. fat

Beat the eggs, and to them add the water, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat in an omelet pan or a small frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg mixture. When the egg on the bottom of the pan has thickened, tip the pan and draw the thickened portion toward the handle with the end of a knife, allowing the uncooked egg to run over the pan, and when that has thickened on the bottom, draw it up as before. Repeat until all of the egg has been cooked and an oblong-shaped omelet is formed. Place on a hot platter or plate, garnish with parsley or jelly, and serve.

59. PUFF OMELET.--Many housewives consider it to be a very difficult thing to make a puff omelet successfully; but such need not be the case if fresh eggs are used and the usual amount of care is taken in its preparation. The whites of the eggs must not be over-beaten, as too much beating will cause the loss of air and will not permit the omelet to become sufficiently light. Another precaution is that the mixture should not be overcooked, for the application of heat after it has been sufficiently cooked will cause it to shrink. How a puff omelet made according to the recipe here given should look, is shown in Fig. 13. This is a very pleasing dish and never fails to appeal to those persons who are fond of eggs.

PUFF OMELET
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 2 Tb. bread crumbs
• 4 Tb. milk
• 4 eggs
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 3 Tb. fat

[Illustration: FIG. 14]

Soak the bread crumbs in the milk. Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the egg yolks and add them to the crumbs and milk. Add the salt and pepper. Beat the egg whites until stiff and fold them carefully into the yolk mixture. Heat the fat in an omelet pan or a frying pan, and when it is hot pour the mixture into it. Cook over a very slow fire, being careful not to burn the mixture, until a knife can be slipped under and the whole mixture raised. By this time the top should be quite puffed up. Place the pan in a hot oven, where the omelet should puff still more, and cook until it is no longer raw. With a knife, score across through the center on a straight line with the handle. Then carefully fold the omelet double, roll it out on a hot platter or plate, as shown in Fig. 14, garnish with parsley, and serve at once. If an omelet of this kind stands for any length of time after it is served, it will shrink and be much less appetizing.

60. CHEESE OMELET.--If an additional amount of protein in the form of casein is desired in an omelet, the accompanying recipe for cheese omelet should be tried. The addition of cheese makes this dish even a better meat substitute than either the plain or the puff omelet. Likewise, the cheese adds flavor, which may be increased if desired by the addition of more cheese than the recipe calls for. Although this recipe mentions butter, fat other than butter may be used.

CHEESE OMELET
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 1/2 c. grated cheese
• 2 Tb. bread crumbs
• 4 Tb. milk
• 4 eggs
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 3 Tb. butter

Mix the grated cheese with the bread crumbs, milk, egg yolks, salt, and pepper. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff and fold them into the other ingredients. To cook the omelet, proceed according to the directions given for making puff omelet in Art. 59.

61. TOMATO OMELET.--The addition of tomatoes to an omelet makes an attractive dish as far as color is concerned, and, at the same time, it gives variety by improving the flavor. Such an omelet is also less concentrated than a plain omelet, for the tomatoes provide bulk and additional water is added. While in a way these lower the food value of the dish, the loss is more than made up by the qualities that are added.

TOMATO OMELET
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 1/2 c. milk
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 3 Tb. fat
• 2 medium-sized ripe tomatoes

Beat the eggs, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat in a pan large enough to make the egg mixture 1/2 inch deep when poured into it. Cook slowly until it is well done. Peel and cut the tomatoes into slices 1/3 inch thick. Place the sliced tomatoes on 1/2 of the omelet, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, score the omelet through the center, and fold the other half over the tomatoes. Then slide the omelet on a hot platter, garnish with lettuce or parsley, and serve at once.

62. VARIETY IN OMELETS.--From the recipes given for omelets, it will be noted that this dish may be made plain or may be varied by adding ingredients that provide flavoring or increase the nutritive value. In addition to the suggestions that have been made in these recipes, there is an almost endless number of ways in which omelets may be varied. For instance, left-over bits of any kind of meat, such as a roast, a steak, or chops, from the day before or bits of bacon fried for a previous meal may be chopped fine and utilized for this purpose. Cheese cut fine or grated and mixed with the eggs helps to make a delicious omelet. Bread crumbs, cracker crumbs, rice, riced potatoes, or left-over cereal may be used, as well as mushrooms, chopped or whole, and oysters raw or previously scalloped or fried and then chopped. Bits of fish, such as left-over crab or lobster, will do nicely for increasing variety. Often jelly, jam, and fruit or vegetables are folded inside after the omelet is cooked.

63. STUFFED EGGS.--A highly seasoned cold dish that is delicious for picnics or cold lunches can be made by removing the yolks from hard-cooked eggs, seasoning them, and then stuffing them into the whites, as is explained in the recipe here given. Eggs so prepared also make a desirable high-protein dish for summer weather when meat dishes fail to appeal to the appetite. Wafers or tiny bread-and-butter sandwiches served with stuffed eggs make them more attractive.

STUFFED EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 hard-cooked eggs
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 1/8 tsp. paprika
• 1/2 tsp. mustard
• 2 Tb. vinegar

Cut the eggs in half, either lengthwise or crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them, add to them the salt, pepper, paprika, mustard, and vinegar, and mix thoroughly. Fill the egg whites with the yolk mixture. The eggs will be much more appetizing in appearance if the yolk is not packed smoothly back into the white but allowed to stand up roughly. The plate on which the eggs are served should be nicely garnished with lettuce, parsley, or celery leaves.

64. CREAMED EGGS.--If a dish that will serve well for luncheon or a light supper is desired, creamed eggs, as illustrated in Fig. 15, will be found very satisfactory, for the cream sauce that is served on them and the toast on which the eggs are placed add carbohydrate to an otherwise high-protein dish. The eggs used in this dish must be hard-cooked in water, so as not to be indigestible. Paprika sprinkled over the top and parsley used as a garnish add colors that make the dish very attractive.

CREAMED EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 1-1/2 c. milk
• 2 Tb. fat
• 2 Tb. flour
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. paprika
• 6 hard-cooked eggs
• 6 slices of toast

Heat the milk. Put the fat in a saucepan and heat it until it is light brown; then add the flour, salt, and paprika to the melted fat and mix all thoroughly. Pour in the hot milk and stir the mixture constantly until the sauce has become smooth and thick. Cut the hard-cooked eggs into halves while they are hot, and place two halves with the cut sides down on each piece of toast. Pour the white sauce over all, sprinkle with paprika, and serve.

65. EGGS À LA GOLDENROD.--Closely resembling creamed eggs in composition and food value, but differing from them somewhat in appearance, are eggs À la goldenrod, which are illustrated in Fig. 16. This is, perhaps, even a more attractive dish if it is nicely made than creamed eggs, and many persons who do not like hard-cooked eggs find this dish agreeable and are able to digest it.

EGGS À LA GOLDENROD
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 2 c. milk
• 2 Tb. fat
• 2 Tb. flour
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 4 hard-cooked eggs
• 6 slices of toast

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and mix well. Then add the hot milk and stir until the sauce thickens. Chop the whites of the hard-cooked eggs into small pieces, and mix them with the white sauce. Arrange the toast on a platter and pour the sauce over it. Put the hard-cooked egg yolks through a sieve or a ricer and sprinkle them on top of the white sauce. Serve hot.

66. SCALLOPED EGGS.--A quantity of carbohydrate is added to eggs when they are scalloped, for the white sauce and the cracker crumbs that are used in this dish supply this food substance. The cold meat that this dish requires and that should be well chopped into small pieces may be left-over from roasted, stewed, or even broiled meat. As this provides an additional amount of protein, the dish on the whole serves as an excellent substitute for meat with carbohydrate added.

SCALLOPED EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 2 c. milk
• 2 Tb. fat
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 2 Tb. flour
• 1 c. cracker crumbs
• 4 hard-cooked eggs
• 1 c. chopped cold meat

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the salt, pepper, and flour, and mix well. To this add the hot milk. Cook until the sauce thickens, stirring constantly. Grease a baking dish and place in it 1/3 cupful of the cracker crumbs. Over the crumbs arrange two of the eggs sliced thinly, and on the top of the eggs put half of the meat. Repeat by adding a layer of 1/3 cupful of the crumbs, the remaining eggs sliced, and the remainder of the meat. Pour the white sauce over all and arrange the remaining 1/3 cupful of crumbs on top. Bake in a moderate oven for 1/2 hour. Serve hot from the baking dish.

67. INDIVIDUAL BAKING DISHES FOR EGG RECIPES.--Although the directions given in the preceding recipe for scalloped eggs state that this recipe is baked in a baking dish, it is not necessary that one large dish of this kind be used, for, if desired, individual baking dishes may be substituted. In fact, any recipe for which a large baking dish would ordinarily be used may be baked in the small dishes used for a single serving, and eggs prepared in this way are especially attractive. Such dishes are also used for the baking of custards or the molding of jelly and blanc mange. Since they prove very useful and find so much favor, it is advisable for every housewife to add a few of them to her supply of utensils and to become familiar with the varieties that can be secured and the proper way to use them.

Dishes of this kind may be purchased in both cheap and expensive varieties and in plain or fancy styles, being made of white porcelain, of glass, or of the brown ware so much used for large baking dishes and casseroles and having a white glazing on the inside.

68. When such dishes are used as a means of adding variety to the cooking and serving of eggs, they should be placed in the oven in a shallow pan containing enough hot water to come nearly to the top of them. The object of this plan is to keep the temperature uniform. As long as the dishes are surrounded by water, the food to be cooked will not attain a greater heat than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, because the surrounding water cannot reach a higher temperature. Food cooked in this way will be found to be baked much more evenly and to be of a better consistency than food that is subjected to the high temperature of the oven. Most of the recipes that follow, while they can be baked in large baking dishes if desired and then served from the dish, are designed particularly to be used in individual baking dishes.

69. BAKED EGGS IN CREAM.--A dish that is particularly desirable for breakfast, but that may be served for luncheon, is made by baking eggs in cream according to the accompanying recipe. Besides being very appetizing, this dish is high in food value because of the addition of the cream and fat. Crisp toast served with eggs prepared in this way is very delightful.

BAKED EGGS IN CREAM
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 eggs
• 1 Tb. butter
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/4 tsp. pepper
• 3/4 c. cream

Grease six individual baking dishes and break an egg into each. Put a small piece of butter on top of each egg and season with salt and pepper. Pour over each egg two tablespoonfuls of cream. Place the baking dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and bake until the eggs are as hard as desired. Serve hot.

70. SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM.--An excellent way in which to utilize scraps of ham is to combine them with eggs to make a dish that may be served in place of meat. This dish, besides being high in food value, is very tasty because of the flavor of the ham and the fact that it is quite highly seasoned.

SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 1/2 tsp. prepared mustard
• 1/4 tsp. pepper
• 1 c. chopped ham
• 6 eggs
• 1/4 tsp. salt
• 1 Tb. butter

Grease six individual baking dishes. Mix the mustard and pepper with the ham, and then divide this mixture as evenly as possible into the baking dishes. Break an egg on top of the ham in each dish, season with salt, and put a small piece of butter on each. Place the dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are well set or hardened. Remove from the oven and serve at once.

71. EGG SOUFFLÉ.--If a delicate dish for children or invalids is desired, egg soufflÉ will answer the purpose very well. This dish is light in character, but it is high in protein and to most persons is very delightful. It is more attractive if baked in individual baking dishes, but it may be baked in a large baking dish and served directly from the dish. To improve the flavor of egg soufflÉ and make it a more appetizing dish, tomato sauce is often served with it.

EGG SOUFFLÉ
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

• 1 c. milk
• 2 Tb. fat
• 2 Tb. flour
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1 Tb. chopped parsley
• 4 eggs

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add to it the flour, salt, and parsley, and mix well. Pour in the hot milk, stir constantly until the sauce thickens, and then remove from the fire. Separate the eggs and add the well-beaten yolks to the sauce, stirring rapidly so that the egg will not curd. Beat the whites stiff and fold them carefully into the sauce. Turn into well-greased individual baking dishes until they are about two-thirds full, place in a shallow pan of hot water, and bake until firm when touched with the finger. Serve at once in the dishes in which they are baked, because they shrink when they are allowed to cool.

72. The tomato sauce that is often served with egg soufflÉ is made as follows:

TOMATO SAUCE

• 1 1/2 c. strained stewed tomatoes
• 2 Tb. fat
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper
• 2 Tb. flour

Force enough stewed tomatoes through a sieve to make 1 1/2 cupfuls of strained tomato. Heat the strained tomato and to it add the fat, salt, and pepper. Moisten the flour with a little cold water and add it to the hot tomato. Cook for 5 minutes. Serve over the soufflÉ.

73. Alpine Eggs.--It is rather unusual to combine cream or cottage cheese with eggs, so that when this is done, as in the accompanying recipe, a dish that is out of the ordinary is the result. If not a sufficient amount of cottage cheese is in supply to serve for a meal, it may very well be used for this dish. Otherwise, cream cheese serves nicely.

ALPINE EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 2 10-cent pkgs. cream cheese or
• 1 c. cottage cheese
• 2 Tb. finely chopped parsley
• 1/8 tsp. paprika
• 6 eggs
• 1 Tb. butter
• 1 1/2 tsp. salt

Grease six individual baking dishes. Break up the cheese with a fork and sprinkle a layer on the bottom of each dish. Break an egg in each dish over the cheese. Season with salt. Sprinkle a layer of cheese on top of the egg, and over that put chopped parsley, paprika, and a small piece of butter. Place the baking dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are set. Remove from the oven and serve at once.

74. CLIPPED EGGS.--The chief value of clipped eggs is their appearance, which, as will be observed in Fig. 17, is very attractive. This dish adds much to the breakfast tray of an invalid or will tempt the appetite of a child who does not feel like eating. But in addition to being attractive, this dish is high in food value, for in this respect it is exactly equivalent to a poached egg on toast or a plain egg served with a piece of toast to which is added a small amount of butter.

CLIPPED EGGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

• 6 pieces toast
• 3 Tb. butter
• 6 eggs
• 1/2 tsp. salt
• 1/8 tsp. pepper

Butter the toast with some of the butter. Separate the whites and yolks of the eggs without breaking the yolks. Beat the whites stiff, and put a mound of the beaten white on top of each piece of buttered toast. Make a hole in the center of the mound of egg white and drop the unbroken yolk into it. Season each with salt and pepper and bits of the remaining butter. Place in a hot oven and bake until the yolk is set and the white slightly browned. Serve hot.

LEFT-OVER EGGS.

75. LEFT-OVER EGGS.--It is not a difficult matter to utilize eggs in any form in which they may be left over, for they combine readily with many other foods. For instance, left-over hard-cooked eggs may be sliced or chopped and used to garnish dishes of vegetables, meat, fish, or salads. Eggs cooked in this way may also be stuffed according to the recipe given in Art. 63, or they may be crushed and mixed with seasoning for sandwiches. If any soft-cooked eggs remain after a meal, they should be hard-cooked in order to be used to the best advantage. Left-over omelet or scrambled, poached, or fried eggs may be chopped and added to soups, sauces, or gravies, or combined with small pieces of meat or fish and used with crumbs and white sauce to make a scalloped dish.

Even uncooked eggs that are taken from the shells, but that cannot be used at once, need not be wasted if proper care is given to them to prevent the formation of a hard crust over their surface. Such eggs should be put into a dish that will allow as little of the surface as possible to be exposed and should be covered with cold water and kept in a cool place. When they are desired for use, the water should be poured off carefully so as to prevent the loss of any of the egg.

BREAKFAST MENU

76. So that a definite idea may be formed of the student's progress in cookery, there is here presented a breakfast menu that is to be prepared and reported on at the same time that the answers to the Examination Questions are sent. This menu is practical and it may be easily prepared, as all the dishes it contains have already been considered.

MENU
Sliced Bananas
Cream of Wheat
Graham Muffins
Butter
Puff Omelet
Coffee

In most homes, breakfast is a meal that is gathered together with as little thought and preparation as possible. The reason for this is that the housewife feels that she does not wish to rise early enough in the morning to prepare an elaborate menu. Breakfast, however, should be the most attractive meal in the day, because it is one that gives to each member of the family the right start for the day and sustains him until luncheon time. In most cases, a cup of coffee and a slice or two of toast do not start one with a cheerful attitude, nor do they contain sufficient food value to nourish the individual properly. With a little forethought and planning, certain foods may be partly prepared for breakfast the day before. If this is done, the time required for the actual preparation of the breakfast need not be greatly increased. For example, in the accompanying menu, the cream of wheat may be cooked the evening before, the materials for the graham muffins measured, and even the pan in which they are to be baked greased, and the materials for the omelet collected and measured. If all this is done, the preparation necessary in the morning will consist merely of slicing the bananas, reheating the cream of wheat, preparing the coffee, baking the muffins, and making the omelet. While the coffee and cream of wheat are heating or cooking, the oven will be heating, so that when the muffins are mixed it will be ready to bake them; and while these are baking the omelet may be prepared. When this is done, all will be ready to serve.

EGGS
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give a brief description of the physical structure of an egg.

(2) (a) Why are eggs an important article of diet? (b) For what foods may they be substituted?

(3) (a) Mention the food substances that are found in an egg, and give the percentage of each one. (b) What food substance is lacking in eggs, and how may it be supplied?

(4) What is the chief food substance in: (a) an egg white? (b) an egg yolk?

(5) Discuss briefly the digestibility of eggs.

(6) (a) Of what value is the grading of eggs? (b) What points are considered when eggs are graded?

(7) (a) What conditions affect the quality of eggs? (6) Mention the agencies that render the quality of eggs inferior and explain how they work.

(8) How can the quality of eggs be determined: (a) in the market? (b) in the home?

(9) (a) What is the common commercial means of preserving eggs? (b) How is it beneficial to the housewife?

(10) (a) Mention the various ways by which eggs may be preserved in the home. (b) Explain the preservation of eggs with water glass.

(11) When may the shells of eggs be washed?

(12) (a) What is the preferable method of breaking an egg? (b) Explain how the yolk and the white of an egg may be separated.

(13) (a) For what purposes are eggs beaten? (b) With what kind of egg beater should egg yolks or whole eggs be beaten?

(14) (a) With what kind of utensil should egg whites be beaten? (b) Why should egg whites not be allowed to stand after beating?

(15) (a) What is the effect of heat upon an egg? (b) Why are eggs cooked in the shell better if they are cooked at a temperature lower than boiling point? (c) Cook an egg by boiling it rapidly for 20 minutes. Cook another egg according to the directions given in Art. 52. Remove the shells while the eggs are warm, compare the texture, and report the differences.

(16) (a) When eggs are used in a mixture that is to be cooked for a long time, when should they be added? (b) What can be substituted for some of the eggs in a mixture that requires eggs for thickening?

(17) (a) What point should never be overlooked in the serving of eggs that are intended to be served hot? (b) Why should spongy egg dishes be served immediately after cooking?

(18) (a) How should dishes that have contained eggs be washed? (b) Why is such care necessary?

(19) (a) What precautions should be taken in the making of a puff omelet? (b) Mention some of the things that may be used to give variety to omelets.

(20) (a) What are the advantages of individual baking dishes? (b) State how these should be put in the oven and explain the object of this plan.

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the menu given in the text, send with your answers to the Examination Questions a written report of your success in making it. On your report simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list:

Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? properly seasoned? smooth? lumpy?

Graham Muffins: light? heavy? texture coarse? texture fine? even brown color on crust? well flavored?

Puff Omelet: light? heavy? underdone? overdone? even brown on bottom? tough? tender? properly seasoned?