As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII) must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained. The first element to consider is the yeast, and the generating of carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous.

Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar. (See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.)

The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check it, are important features of bread-making.

The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a temperature of 75°. After fermentation has become active the temperature may be gradually lowered—as in setting bread over night—without injury.

Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks fermentation and affects the flavor.

Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk, both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and kept in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a stone or granite bowl.

The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated, by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel. The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread. The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes, then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other hand, the oven is not hot enough, the bread will go on rising until it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound, if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors.

• 2 quarts flour.
• 1 tbsp. sugar.
• 1 pint lukewarm water.
• 1 tsp. salt.
• 1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard.
• 1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water.

Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be substituted in this recipe.)

• 1 tbsp. butter.
• 1 tbsp. sugar.
• 1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake.
• 1 tsp. salt.
• 1 pt. water.
• About 2 qts. flour.

Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint, 3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4 cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead. Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as directed in previous recipe.

• 1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled.
• 1 tsp. salt.
• 2 cups white flour.
• 2 tbsps. sugar.
• 5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.
• 1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast.

Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading, otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour may be added.

Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp. salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast. Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5 hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full, and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.)