[1] Julius Gurlt’s bibliographical essay on bloodletting, originally published in 1898, is a prime source for tracing in detail the specific contributions of European and Asian authors in the ancient, medieval, and Renaissance periods. See Julius Gurlt, Geschichte der Chirurgie und ihrer Ausuebung (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1964), volume 3, page 556-565. [2] George F. Knox, The Art of Cupping (London, 1836), page 30. [3] For a general history of bloodletting, see Townsend W. Thorndike, “A History of Bleeding and Leeching,” British Medical and Surgical Journal, volume 197, number 12 (September 1927), pages 437-477. For a detailed account of ancient bloodletting, see Rudolph Siegel, “Galen’s Concept of Bloodletting in Relation to His Ideas on Pulmonary and Peripheral Blood Flow and Blood Formation” (chapter 19 in volume 1 of Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance edited by Allen Debus, New York: Science History Publications, 1973), pages 247-275. [4] Robert Montraville Green, “A Translation of Galen’s Temperaments and Venesection” (manuscript, Yale Medical Library, New Haven, Connecticut), page 102. [5] Ibid., page ii-iv. [6] Celsus, De Medicina, translated by W. G. Spencer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), volume 1, book 2, page 155. [7] Henry E. Sigerist, A History of Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), volume II, pages 317-335. [8] Green, op. cit. [note 4], page 105. [9] Peter H. Niebyl, “Galen, Van Helmont and Blood Letting,” (chapter 21 in volume 2 of Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance edited by Allen Debus, New York: Science History Publications, 1972); Peter Niebyl, “Venesection and the Concept of the Foreign Body: A Historical Study in the Therapeutic Consequences of Humoral and Traumatic Consequences of Diseases” (doctoral dissertation, Yale University, 1969), page 156. [10] Green, op. cit. [note 4], page 171. [11] Ibid., page 114. [12] Ibid., page 173. [13] Ibid., pages 174, 180. [14] Celsus, op. cit. [note 6], page 163. [15] Charles H. Talbot, Medicine in Medieval England (London: Oldbourne, 1967), pages 127-131. [16] Charles D. O’Malley, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964), pages 66-67. [17] See, for example, M. David, Recherches sur la maniÈre d’agir de la saignÉe et sur les effets qu’elle produit relativement À la partie ou on la fait (Paris, 1762), page iv. [18] Lorenz Heister, Chirurgie, in welcher alles, was zur wund artzney gehÖret ... (Nuremberg, 1719). [19] Green, op. cit. [note 4], page 179. [20] Joseph T. Smith, Sr., “An Historical Sketch of Bloodletting,” Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, volume 21 (1910), page 312. [21] Marshall Hall, Observations on Bloodletting Founded upon Researches on the Morbid and Curative Effects of Loss of Blood (London, 1836), page 280. [22] Robley Dunglison, Medical Lexicon—A Dictionary of Medical Science (Philadelphia, 1848), page 820. [23] James E. Bowman, “Blood,” Encyclopaedia Britannica (Chicago: William Benton, 1972), volume 34, pages 795-800. [24] Green, op. cit. [note 4], page 187. [25] Karl Sudhoff, Deutsche medizinische Inkunabeln (Leipzig, 1908); Studien zur Geschichte der Medizin heft 2/3. Sir William Osler, Incunabula Medica: A Study of the Earliest Printed Medical Books, 1467-1480 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923). [26] Francisco Guerra, “Medical Almanacs of the American Colonial Period,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, volume 16 (1961), pages 235-237. The number of veins illustrated in the vein man varied a great deal but became fewer after the seventeenth century. [27] Talbot, op. cit. [note 15], pages 127-131. [28] Guerra, op. cit. [note 26], pages 237; Marion Barber Stowell, Early American Almanacs: The Colonial Weekday Bible (New York: Burt Franklin, 1977). The latter work contains numerous illustrations of “anatomies” from colonial almanacs. [29] “Original Letters,” General William F. Gordon to Thomas Walker Gilmar, 11 December 1832, William and Mary Quarterly, volume 21 (July 1912), page 67. [30] Talbot, op. cit. [note 15], pages 50, 51. For another view of the religious impact upon medieval medical and surgical practices, see James J. Walsh, The Popes and Science (New York: Fordham University Press, 1908), pages 167-198. [31] Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477. [32] Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote de la Mancha, translated by Walter Starkie (New York: Mentor, 1963), pages 91, 92. [33] Charles Alverson, “Surgeon Abel’s Exotic Bleeding Bowls,” Prism, volume 2 (July 1974), pages 16-18; John K. Crellin, “Medical Ceramics,” in A Catalogue of the English and Dutch Collections in the Museum of the Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1969), pages 273-279. [34] Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477; Carey P. McCord, “Bloodletting and Bandaging,” Archives Environmental Health, volume 20 (April 1970), pages 551-553. [35] Leo Zimmerman and Veith Ilza, Great Ideas in the History of Surgery (New York: Dover Books, 1967), page 126. [36] William Harvey, Works, edited by Robert Willis (London: Sydenham Society, 1847), page 129. Harvey reaffirmed later: “I imagine that I shall perform a task not less new and [37] Henry Stubbe, The Lord Bacons Relation of the Sweating-Sickness Examined ... Together with a Defense of Phlebotomy ... (London, 1671), page 102. [38] Fielding H. Garrison, “The History of Bloodletting,” New York Medical Journal, volume 97 (1913), page 499. Magendie was firmly opposed to bloodletting and ordered physicians working under him not to bleed. However, their belief in the practice was so strong that they disobeyed his instructions and carried out the procedure. See Erwin Ackerknecht, Therapeutics from the Primitives to the 20th Century (New York: Hafner, 1973), pages 111-112. [39] Audrey B. Davis, Circulation Physiology and Medical Chemistry in England, 1650-1680 (Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press, 1973), pages 135, 167, 219. For the history of injecting remedies into the blood, see Horace M. Brown, “The Beginnings of Intravenous Medication,” Annals of Medical History, volume 1 (1917), page 182. [40] Arturo Castiglioni, A History of Medicine, translated from Italian by E. B. Krumbhar, 2nd edition, revised and enlarged (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958), page 444; Niebyl, “Venesection” [note 9], page 414. [41] Joan Lillico, “Primitive Bloodletting,” Annals of Medical History, volume II (1940), page 137. [42] C.J.S. Thompson, Guide to the Surgical Instruments and Objects in the Historical Series with Their History and Development (London: Taylor and Francis, 1929), page 40. [43] John Stewart Milne, Surgical Instruments in Greek and Roman Times (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1970), reprint of 1907 edition, pages 32-35. A bronze knife of this type is illustrated in Theodor Meyer-Steineg, Chirurgische Instrumente des Altertum (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1912), page iv, figure 9. The instrument was donated by Dr. Nylin of the Kardinska Institute in Stockholm, who used a lancet until 1940. Replicas of the early bronze medical instruments were sold in 1884 by Professor Francesco Scalzi of Rome. He exhibited 45 of them at the Exposition Universelle de Paris in 1878. He won an honorable mention award, “Collezione di Istrumenti Chirurgici de Roma Antica,” 1884. [44] S. Holth, “Greco-Roman and Arabic Bronze Instruments and Their Medico-Surgical Use,” Skriften utgit an Videnskapsselskapet I Kristrania (1919), page 1 (below). Holth lists the content of lead, tin, zinc, iron, copper, and cobalt found in a number of ancient bronze medical items in his collection, which formerly belonged to Baron Ustinov of Russia. These instruments were unearthed in Syria and Palestine from 1872 to 1890. [45] An occasional curious item like the spring lancet on display in the Welch Medical Library of the Johns Hopkins University is an exception. [46] Milne, op cit. [note 43], pages 35-36. [47] Laurence Heister, A General System of Surgery in Three Parts, translated into English (London, 1759), 7th edition, page 294. [48] Gurlt, op. cit. [note 1], volume III, page 558. [49] G. Gaujot and E. Spillman, Arsenal de la Chirurgie Contemporaine (Paris: J. B. Bailliere et fils, 1872), pages 274-276. [50] Milne, op. cit. [note 43], page 33. [51] Garrison, op. cit. [note 38], page 433. [52] Sir William Ferguson, Lectures on the Progress of Anatomy and Surgery during the Present Century (London: John Churchill & Sons, 1867), page 284. [53] James Ewell, The Medical Companion (Philadelphia, 1816), pages 405, 406. [54] For an illustration of incisions, see Heister, (1759), op. cit. [note 47]. [55] Milne, op. cit. [note 43], page 36. [56] Gurlt, op. cit. [note 1], volume III, page 556. [57] P. Hamonic describes an eighteenth-century Naples porcelain figure of a woman being bled that illustrates the elegant manner in which the operation was performed. P. Hamonic, La Chirurgie et la medÉcine d’autrefois d’aprÉs une premiÈre sÉrie d’instruments anciens renfermes dans mes collections (Paris: A. Maloine, ed., 1900), pages 91, 93. [58] Thomas Dickson, A Treatise on Bloodletting with an Introduction Recommending a Review of the Materia Medica (London, 1765), page 1. [59] Sir D’Arcy Power, editor, British Medical Societies (London: The Medical Press Circular, 1939), page 23. [60] Wakeley was a heretic wealthy doctor who led the campaign in Britain against the monopoly of surgical training and practice held by the Royal College of Surgeons of London. Alan Arnold Klass, There’s Gold in “Them Thar Pills” (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1975), pages 158-159. [61] John Harvey Powell, Bring Out Your Dead (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949), page 123. [62] See, e.g., Richard Shryock, Medicine and Society in America: 1660-1860 (New York: New York University Press, 1960), pages 67, 111-112. [63] James T. Flexner, George Washington: Anguish and Farewell (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), pages 457-459. [64] Barbara Duncum, The Development of Inhalation Anesthesia (The Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, Oxford University Press, 1947), page 195. [65] Hamonic, op. cit. [note 57], pages 95-96. [66] Donald D. Shira, “Phlebotomy Lancet,” Ohio State Medical Journal, volume 35 (1939), page 67. [67] Heister, (1719) loc. cit. [note 18]. [68] Encyclopedia or Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences, 1st American edition (Philadelphia, 1798). [69] Ristelhueber, “Notice: sur la flammette, phlÉbotome des Allemands, Fliete, Schnepper oder gefederte Fliete, phlebotomus elasticus, Flamme ou flammette,” Journal de MÉdecine, chirurgie et pharmacologie, volume 37 (Paris, 1816), pages 9-17. [70] John Syng Dorsey, Elements of Surgery: For the Use of Students, volume 2 (Philadelphia, 1813), pages 279-281. [71] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 16479. [72] M. Malgaigne, “Esquisse historique sur la saignÉe considÉrÉe au point de vue opÉratoire; extrait des leÇons du Professeur Malgaigne,” Revue Medico Chirurgicale de Paris, volume 9 (1851), page 123. [73] Garrison, op. cit. [note 38], page 501. [74] Some of these studies are cited in B. M. Randolph, “The [75] Quotation cited by Lester S. King, “The Blood-letting Controversy: A Study in the Scientific Method,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, volume 35 (1961), page 2. [76] Martin Kaufmann, Homeopathy in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), pages 1-14. Other references on the decline of bloodletting include: Leon S. Bryan, Jr., “Blood-letting in American Medicine, 1830-1892,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, volume 38 (1964), pages 516-529; B. M. Randolph, op. cit. [note 74], pages 177-182; James Polk Morris, “The Decline of Bleeding in America, 1830-1865” (manuscript, Institute for the Medical Humanities, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas), 11 pages. [77] Henry I. Bowditch, Venesection, Its Abuse Formerly—Its Neglect at the Present Day (Boston: David Clapp & Son, 1872), pages 5, 6. [78] W. Mitchell Clarke, “On the History of Bleeding, and Its Disuse in Modern Practice,” The British Medical Journal (July 1875), page 67. [79] Henry Lafleur, “Venesection in Cardiac and Arterial Disease,” The Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, volume 2 (1891), pages 112-114. [80] See, for example, John Reid, “Bleeding,” Essays on Hypochondriasis and Other Nervous Affections (London, 1821), essay 22 page 334. [81] Austin Flint, A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Medicine, 3rd edition (Philadelphia, 1868), page 150. [82] Martin Duke, “Arteriosclerotic Heart Disease, Polychthenic and Phlebotomy—Rediscovered,” Rhode Island Medical Journal, volume 48 (1965), page 477. [83] Samuel Levine, Editorial, “Phlebotomy, An Ancient Procedure Turning Modern?,” Journal of the American Medical Association (January 26, 1963), page 280. [84] George Burch and N. P. DePasquale, “Phlebotomy Use in Patients with Erythrocytosis and Ischemic Heart Disease,” Archives of Internal Medicine, volume 3 (June 1963), pages 687-695. See also George Burch and N. P. DePasquale, “Hematocrit, Viscosity and Coronary Blood Flow,” Diseases of the Chest, volume 48 (September 1965), pages 225-232. [85] Heinrich Stern, “A Venepuncture Trocar (Stern’s Trocar),” Medical Record (December 1905), pages 1043, 1044. [86] Delavan V. Holman, “Venesection, Before Harvey and After,” Bulletin New York Academy of Medicine, volume 31 (September 1955), pages 662, 664. [87] Samuel Bayfield, A Treatise on Practical Cupping (London, 1823), page 11. [88] Celsus, De Medicina, op. cit. [note 6], page 169. For bibliography on cupping, see William Brockbank, Ancient Therapeutic Arts (London: William Heinemann, 1954); John Haller, “The Glass Leech: Wet and Dry Cupping Practices in the Nineteenth Century,” New York State Journal of Medicine (1973), pages 583-592; Brochin, “Ventouses,” Dictionnaire encyclopÉdique des sciences mÉdicales, series 5, volume 2 (1886), pages 750-752; and, the Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, U.S. Army. [89] Hippocrates, Aphorisms, V, page 50. [90] Thomas Mapleson, A Treatise on the Art of Cupping (London, 1813), opposite page 1. [91] Gurlt, op. cit. [note 1], volume 3, page 151. [92] Charles Coury, “SaignÉes, ventouses et cautÉrisations dans le mÉdecine orientale À l’Époque de la Renaissance,” Histoire de la mÉdecine, volume 11 (November-December 1961), pages 9-23. [93] W. A. Gillespie, “Remarks on the Operation of Cupping, and the Instruments Best Adapted to Country Practice,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, volume 10 (1834), page 28. [94] Letter from Rev. Robert Richards to Dr. Sami Hamarneh, 1 September 1966 (Division of Medical Sciences, Museum of History and Technology). [95] On ancient cups, see Celsus, op. cit. [note 6], pages 165-167; Milne, op. cit. [note 43], pages 101-105 and plates; and Brockbank, op. cit. [note 88], pages 65-72. The Institute of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, has several metal cups dating from about A.D. 100. [96] Castiglioni, op. cit. [note 40], page 380. [97] Pierre Dionis, Cours d’opÉrations de chirurgie demonstrÉes au Jardin Royal (Paris, 1708), page 584. [98] RÉnÉ Jacques Croissante de Garengeot, Nouveau TraitÉ des Instrumens de Chirurgie les plus utiles (The Hague, 1725), page 342. [99] Dionis, op. cit. [note 97], page 585. [100] Mapleson, op. cit. [note 90], pages 27-28. See also George Frederick Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page 29. [101] Mapleson, op. cit. [note 90]; Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87]; Knox, op. cit. [note 2]; and Monson Hills, “A Short Treatise on the Operation of Cupping,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, volume 9 (1834), pages 261-273. [102] Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page vi. [103] Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], page 125. [104] Dionis, op. cit. [note 97], page 587 and figure 57 on page 583. [105] Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page 33. [106] John H. Savigny, A Collection of Engravings representing the Most Modern and Approved Instruments Used in the Practice of Surgery (London, 1798), plate 7. For the earlier grease lamp, see J. A. Brambilla, Instrumentarium Chirurgicum Viennense oder Wiennerliche Chirurgische Instrumenten Sammlung (Vienna, 1780), plate 2. [107] Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], page 123; Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page 33; Hills, op. cit. [note 101], page 263. [108] See Dionis, op. cit. [note 97], page 587 and figure 58 on page 583; and Laurence Heister, op. cit. [note 47], page 329 and plate 12. The parallel incisions were described in antiquity by Oribasius (ca. A.D. 360), the most important medical author after Galen and the friend of the emperor Julian. See Gurlt, op. cit. [note 1], volume 3, page 563. [109] Ambroise ParÉ, The Collected Works of Ambroise ParÉ, translated by Thomas Johnson (London, 1634). Reprint edition (Pound Ridge, New York: Milford House, 1968), page 446. The drawing first appeared in ParÉ’s treatise “Methode de traiter des playes de la teste” in 1561. [110] Paulus Aegineta, Medicinae Totius enchiridion (Basileae, 1541), page 460. [111] Albert Wilhelm Hermann Seerig, Armamentarium chirurgicum oder mÖglichst vollstÄndige Sammlung von Abbildungen und Beschreibung Chirurgischer Instrument alterer und neuerer Zeit (Breslau, 1838), page 598. [112] Jacques Delechemps, Chirurgie FranÇoise Recueillie (Lyon, 1564, page 174); Hellkiah Crooke. Micrographia: A [113] Garengeot, op. cit. [note 98], pages 347, 351. [114] Heister (1719), op. cit. [note 18], page 329. Lorenz Heister ... Chirurgie ... (Nuremberg, 1719) includes the same picture of the scarificator as the 1759 English translation. [115] Heister (1759), op. cit. [note 47], page 330. [116] See Brambilla, op. cit. [note 106], plate 2; Denis Diderot, Dictionnaire risonnÉ des sciences, arts et mÉtiers. Recueil des planches (Lausanne and Berne, 1780), volume 2, plate 23; and Benjamin Bell, A System of Surgery, 5th edition (Edinburgh, 1791), volume 1, plate 5. [117] James Latta, A Practical System of Surgery (Edinburgh, 1795), volume 1, plate I; Benjamin Bell, A System of Surgery, 7th edition (Edinburgh, 1801), volume 3, plate 7. [118] John Weiss, An Account of Inventions and Improvements in Surgical Instruments Made by John Weiss, 62, Strand, 2nd edition (London, 1831), pages 12-13. A Mr. Fuller introduced a similar improvement, which Weiss claimed Fuller had pirated from him. The only difference between Weiss’s Improved Scarificator and Fuller’s Improved Scarificator was that the blades in Weiss’s were arch shaped and those of Fuller’s crescent shaped. The cupper, Knox, preferred the crescent blades because they gave a sharper cut. In any case, most nineteenth-century scarificators were made with crescent-shaped blades. On Fuller’s scarificator, see Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], pages 99-100; and, Seerig, op. cit. [note 111], pages 604-605 and plate 56. [119] Extract du Catalogue de la maison CharriÈre (Paris, 1843), page 30; Knox, op. cit. [note 2], pages 39, 40. [120] This statement is based on the perusal of a wide variety of nineteenth-century trade catalogs. See “List of Trade Catalogs Consulted.” [121] Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page xii. [122] Ibid., pages 14-15. [123] Hills, op. cit. [note 101], page 266. [124] Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], page 116. [125] Knox, op. cit. [note 2], pages 53-64. [126] Ibid., page 68. [127] Hero of Alexandria, The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria, translated by Bennet Woodcroft (London, 1851). [128] Gurlt, op. cit. [note 1], volume 2, page 565 and plate X. [129] Brambilla, op. cit. [note 106], page 42, mentioned but did not picture a cup with air pump. One of the earliest illustrations of a cup with pump is found in Savigny, op. cit. [note 106], plate 7. [130] Mapleson, op. cit. [note 90], page 63. [131] Knox, op. cit. [note 2], page 32. [132] John Read, A Description of Read’s Patent Syringe Pump (London, no date). See also John Read, An Appeal to the Medical Profession on the Utility of the Improved Patent Syringe, 2nd edition (London, ca. 1825). [133] Weiss, op. cit. [note 118], page 87; Chas. Truax, Greene & Co., Price List of Physicians’ Supplies, 6th edition (Chicago, 1893), pages 989-1010. [134] “Notice sur l’acupuncture et sur une nouvelle espÈce de ventouse armÉe de lancettes, inventÉe par A.-P. Demours,” Journal universal des sciences mÉdicales, volume 15 (1819), pages 107-113; Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], pages 73-81. [135] Thomas Machell, “Description of an Apparatus for Cupping, Dry Cupping, and Drawing the Breasts of Females; With some Observations Respecting Its Use,” London Medical and Physical Journal, volume 42 (1819), pages 378-380; Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], pages 81-89. [136] Bayfield, op. cit. [note 87], pages 92-93. [137] Robert J. Dodd, “Improved Cupping Apparatus,” The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, new series, volume 7 (1844), page 510. See also patent specifications, U.S. patent 3537. [138] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 68985. [139] Hills, op. cit. [note 101], page 261. [140] Gillespie, op. cit. [note 93], page 29. [141] Frances Fox, Jr., “A Description of an Improved Cupping Glass, with Which from Five to Eight Ounces of Blood May Be Drawn, with Observations,” The Lancet, volume 12 (1827), pages 238-239. Knox, op. cit. [note 2], pages 36-37, recommended these glasses especially for use on young ladies who feared scars left by cupping. One of the “glass leeches” fixed below the level of the gown could draw all the blood necessary. [142] See John Gordon, “Remarks on the Present Practice of Cupping; With an Account of an Improved Cupping Glass,” The London Medical Repository, volume 13 (1820), pages 286-289. J. Welsh, “Description of a Substitute for Leeches,” The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, volume 11 (1815), pages 193-194; P. Moloney, “A New Cupping Instrument,” Australia Medical Journal, new series, volume 1 (1879), pages 338-340. At least two American patents were given for improved cups, one to C. L. Myers in 1884 (U.S. patent 291388) and one to Jaime Catuela in 1922 (U.S. patent 1463458). [143] Savigny, op. cit. [note 106], plate 18, illustrated in 1798 “elastic bottles” that could be attached to glass cups for drawing the breasts; however, not until Charles Goodyear’s discovery of the vulcanization process in 1838 was rubber widely used in cupping. An American surgeon, Samuel Gross, wrote in 1866 that the glass cup with a bulb of vulcanized rubber was the “most elegant and convenient cup, by far.” See Samuel Gross, A System of Surgery, 4th edition, 2 volumes (Philadelphia, 1866), volume 1, page 451. [144] George Tiemann & Co., American Armamentarium Chirurgicum (New York, 1889), page 825. [145] For one listing of the disadvantages of the common scarificator, see Blatin, “Scarificator nouveau,” Bulletin de l’AcadÉmie Royale de MedÈcine, volume 11 (1845-1846), pages 87-90. Blatin patented a new scarificator in 1844 that supposedly overcame the difficulties he listed. [146] James Coxeter, “New Surgical Instruments,” The Lancet (November 15, 1845), page 538; James Coxeter & Son, A Catalogue of Surgical Instruments (London, 1870), page 48. Coxeter sold his scarificator for 2 pounds, 2 shillings, while he offered his “best scarificator, with old action” for two pounds. [147] Great Britain Patent Office, Subject-Matter Index of Patents of Invention, 1617-1852, 2 volumes (London, 1957); U.S. Patent Office, Subject Matter Index of Patents for [148] CharriÈre [firm], Cinq notices rÉunies presentÉes a MM. les membres des jurys des expositions franÇaises de 1834, 1839, 1844, et 1849, et de l’exposition universelle de Londres en 1851 (Paris, 1851), page 56. [149] Maison CharriÈre, Robert et Collin, Successeurs, [Catalogue gÉnÉrale] (Paris, 1867), pages 42, 44, and plate 9. [150] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 4705; Tiemann & Co., op. cit. [note 144], page 115. Tiemann was awarded an earlier patent for a scarificator in 1834 (unnumbered U.S. patent, 26 August 1834), which seems to have employed a coiled spring similar to that found in the CharriÈre scarificator. The fifth U.S. patent for a scarificator was issued in 1846 to A. F. Ahrens of Philadelphia (U.S. patent 4717) for a circular scarificator in which all the blades were attached to a movable plate. [151] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 5111. [152] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 8095. [153] Dyce Duckworth, “On the Employment of Dry-Cupping,” The Practitioner: A Monthly Journal of Therapeutics, volume 2 (1869), page 153. [154] Ibid., page 155. For more information on counter-irritation, see Brockbank, op. cit. [note 88]. Blisters were substances (including mustard and cantharides) that when applied to the skin, occasioned a serous secretion and the raising of the epidermis to form a vesicle. Cautery was the application of a red-hot iron to the skin. A seton was a long strip of linen or cotton thread passed through the skin by a seton needle. Each day a fresh piece of thread was drawn through the sore. Moxa were cones of cotton wool or other substances which were placed upon the skin and burned. [155] Charles Baunscheidt, Baunscheidtismus, by the Inventor of the New Curing Method, 1st English edition, translated from the 6th German edition by John Cheyne and L. Hayman (Bonn., 1859?). [156] The patent models are in the Smithsonian collection. See “Catalog” herein. The Aima Tomaton, a device invented and manufactured by Dr. L. M’Kay, was yet another American variation on the Lebenswecker. See L. M’Kay, Aima Tomaton: Or New Cupping and Puncturing Apparatus (Rochester, 1870). An example can be found in the collection of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. [157] See Duckworth, op. cit. [note 153]; Isaac Hoover, “An Essay on Dry Cupping,” Transactions of the Belmont Medical Society for 1847-48-49-50 (Bridgeport, 1851), pages 30-32; Marshall Hall, Practical Observations and Suggestions in Medicine (London, 1845), pages 51-53; and B. H. Washington, “Remarks on Dry Cupping,” The New Jersey Medical Reporter and Transactions of the New Jersey Medical Society (1852-53), pages 278-281. [158] Casper Wistar Pennock, “Observations and Experiments on the Efficacy and Modus Operandi of Cupping-Glasses in Preventing and Arresting the Effects of Poisoned Wounds,” The American Journal of Medical Sciences, volume 2 (1828), pages 9-26. For a discussion of the debate over absorption, see Knox, op. cit. [note 2], pages 21-24. [159] Tiemann, op. cit. [note 144], pages 116, 800. [160] Victor-ThÉodore Junod, A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Hemospasia, translated by Mrs. E. Howley Palmer (London, 1879). [161] Heinrich Stern, Theory and Practice of Bloodletting (New York: Rebman Co., 1915), pages 71-72. [162] August Bier, Hyperemia as a Therapeutic Agent (Chicago, 1905), page 21. [163] Willy Meyer and Victor Schmieden, Bier’s Hyperemic Treatment, 2nd edition (Philadelphia, 1909). [164] Haller, op. cit. [note 88; see also note 72], page 585. [165] Gross, op. cit. [note 143], volume 2, page 906. [166] Such a breast pump was illustrated by Heister (1719), op. cit. [note 17], plate 14. All glass breast pumps were probably more typical of the eighteenth than the nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century the glass tube was replaced by a flexible tube with a mouthpiece. [167] For example, see The J. Durbin Surgical Supply Co., Standard Surgical Instruments (Denver, 1929), page 59. [168] Data on the numbers of breast pumps patented was obtained from the files of the U.S. Patent Office in Arlington, Virginia. [169] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 1179129. For other illustrations of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century patents for cupping devices, see Haller, op. cit. [note 88]. [170] Stern, op. cit. [note 85], page 74. [171] Mabelle S. Welsh, “‘Cups for Colds’: The Barber, the Surgeon and the Nurse,” The American Journal of Nursing, volume 19 (1918-19), pages 763-766. See also Haller, op. cit. [note 88], and J. Epstein, “The Therapeutic Value of Cupping: Its Use and Abuse,” New York Medical Journal, volume 112 (1920), pages 584-585. [172] Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477. For bibliography on leeching, see Brockbank, op. cit. [note 88]; Merat, “Sangsue,” Dictionnaire des sciences mÉdicales, volume 49 (1820), pages 520-541; G. Carlet and Emile Bertin, “Sangsue,” Dictionnaire encyclopÉdique des sciences mÉdicales, 3rd series, volume 6 (1878), pages 660-681; and the Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, U.S. Army. [173] Alfred Stille and John M. Maisch, The National Dispensatory, 2nd edition (Philadelphia, 1880), page 713; James Thacher, The American Dispensatory, 2nd edition (Boston, 1813), page 230; C. Lewis Diehl, “Report on the Progress of Pharmacy,” Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association, volume 25 (1876), page 205. [174] W. H. Schieffelin & Co., General Prices Current (New York, 1887), page 39. [175] Diehl, op. cit. [note 173]; John C. Hartnett, “The Care and Use of Medicinal Leeches in 19th Century Pharmacy and Therapeutics,” Pharmacy in History, volume 14 (1972), page 133. [176] Broussais offered the following explanation for the effectiveness of leeching. Congestion of blood vessels in a healthy person gives rise to a sympathetic irritation in the mucous surfaces of bodily orifices. Equilibrium may be restored naturally by hemorrhage through the nose. Without this release of blood, congestion builds up into an inflammation. Local bloodletting relieves the congestion when applied on a portion of the skin corresponding to the inflamed organ. Broussais’s favorite remedy was the application of leeches to the stomach and head. For this purpose he ordered hundreds [177] Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477. See also Karl-Otto Kuppe, Die Blutegel in der Aerztlichen Praxis (reprint, Stuttgart: Hippocrates-Verlag, 1955), pages 9-11. [178] Hartnett, op. cit. [note 175], page 132. [179] Jonathan Osborne, “Observations on Local Bloodletting, and on Some New Methods of Practicing It,” Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science, volume 3 (1833), pages 334-342. [180] See, for example, Maison CharriÈre, Robert et Collin, op. cit. [note 149], page 42 and plate 9. [181] John Berry Haycraft, “On the Coagulation of the Blood,” 9 pages, extracted from Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, volume 231 (1884). [182] Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477. Merat, op. cit. [note 172], page 528, cited an extreme case in which a woman suffering from peritonitis was given a total of 250 leeches in 24 hours. She died soon after. [183] Stille and Maisch, op. cit. [note 173], page 715; Thacher, op. cit. [note 173], page 231. [184] Hartnett, op. cit. [note 175], page 132; J. K. Crellin, op. cit. [note 33], pages 127-134. [185] Andrew H. Smith, “An Artificial Leech,” Medical Record, volume 4 (1869-70), page 406. [186] In addition to the references below, articles on artificial leeches include Dr. Montain, “ConsidÉrations thÉrapeutiques sur l’emploi du pneumo-derme, nouvel instrument destinÉ À remplacer les sangsues et les ventouses,” Bulletin GÉnÉral de thÉrapeutique, volume 11 (1836), pages 311-315; J. J. Tweed, “A Description of the Apparatus for Employing the Mechanical Leeches,” Medical Times, volume 21 (1850), pages 36-37; and Samuel Theobald, “An Improved Method of Applying the Artificial Leech,” American Journal of Medical Science, new series, volume 70 (1875), pages 139-142. [187] SarlandiÈre, “Ventouse,” Dictionnaire des sciences mÉdicales, volume 57 (Paris, 1821), pages 174-178; Paulet, “Bdellometre,” Dictionnaire encyclopÉdique des sciences mÉdicales, series 1, volume 8 (Paris, 1868), pages 632-633; L. Gresely, “Dissertation sur les sangsues, le nouveau scarificateur, et sur leur emploi en mÉdecine” (Paris: Faculty of Medicine, 1820), dissertation no. 202. [188] Robley Dunglison, Medical Lexicon: A New Dictionary of Medical Science, 3rd edition (Philadelphia, 1842). The bdellometer was listed in later editions of this dictionary throughout the nineteenth century. [189] Damoiseau, La terabdelle ou machine pneumatique operant a volontÉ la saignÉe locale et la revulsion aux principales regions du corps humains (Paris, 1862), 60 pages. See also Gaujot and Spillman, op. cit. [note 49], pages 194-195. [190] L. Wecker, “De la sangsue artificielle (modÉle du baron Heurteloup), et de son emploi dans le traitment des maladies des yeux.” Bulletin gÉnÉral de thÉrapeutique mÉdicale et chirurgicale, volume 62 (1862), pages 107-116. For price information, see Caswell, Hazard & Co. (W. F. Ford), Illustrated Catalogue of Surgical Instruments and Appliances (New York, 1874), page 18. An example of Heurteloup’s leech as well as a larger, modified Heurteloup’s leech can be found in the collection of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. [191] Smith, op. cit. [note 185], page 406; Tiemann, op. cit. [note 144], page 116; Patent specifications, U.S. patent 100210. An example of this artificial leech can be found in the collection of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. [192] Tiemann, op. cit. [note 144], page 506. [193] William Reese, “Uterine Leech and Aspirator,” Medical Record, volume 11 (1876), page 596. [194] Otto Raubenheimer, “Leeches—How to Dispense Them,” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, volume 12 (1923), page 339. Thorndike, op. cit. [note 3], page 477, notes that in 1927, leeches still could be had in Boston for 75¢ apiece. In Cleveland they were still obtainable in the 1950s. [195] Dictionnaire usuel de chirurgie et de mÉdicine vetÉrinaire, 2 volumes (Paris, 1835-36), articles “Ventouses” and “Sangsues.” [196] Ibid., article “SaignÉe.” [197] EncyclopÉdie mÉthodique: MÉdecine, volume 9 (Paris, 1816), page 478. [198] Dictionnaire usuel, op. cit. [note 195], volume 2, page 605. [199] Weiss, op. cit. [note 118], page 100, plate 27. [200] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 6240. [201] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 236084. |