William Gilbert, a physician of Colchester, first showed in 1600 that the earth as a whole has the properties of a magnet, and consequently that the directive action exerted by it upon a compass needle represents only a special case of the mutual action of two magnets. In 1845, Faraday established the fact that susceptibility to magnetic force is not, as was generally believed, confined to iron, nickel, and a few other substances, but is a property of all substances. According to Balfour Stewart, aurorÆ and earth currents may be regarded as secondary currents resulting from changes in the earth’s magnetism. Magnetic phenomena are included under the general term terrestrial magnetic elements, and consist of magnetic declination, inclination, and intensity. These are for convenience determined separately; the first by an instrument called a Declinometer, and the second by an Inclinometer or Dipping Needle. The Declinometer is also made to serve the additional purpose of 62. Fig. 62 shows a simple form of magnetic needle suspended on a fine steel point, which is supported by a brass stand; the addition of a graduated circle would constitute such an arrangement a Declinometer. 63. 64. Fig. 63 gives the appearance of the dipping needle, or Inclinometer, and Fig. 64 an arrangement by which both kinds of terrestrial as well as local attraction may be shown. These components of the earth’s magnetism undergo not only an annual but a daily and even hourly variation, apparently connected in some occult manner with the frequency of the sun’s spots. The needle sometimes suffers such exceptional perturbations as to suggest the Accordingly the Royal Society have adopted for the Kew and other observatories the form of Magnetograph, or Self-recording Magnetometer, shown at Fig. 61, by means of which the variations just referred to are registered by the oscillations of three magnets on photographically prepared paper, stretched on a drum revolved by clockwork. One magnet is suspended in the magnetic meridian by a silk thread, and, by the aid of a mirror attached, it describes on the cylinder, moved by clockwork in the centre pier, all the variations in the magnetic declination. The other two components of the magnetic force of the earth are given by the other magnets. That recording the vertical variations rests on two agate edges under a glass shade, while the horizontal component magnet is suspended by a double silk thread, under the shade to the right of the picture, being retained by the tension of the thread in a position nearly at right angles to the magnetic meridian. The clock box in the centre covers the three revolving cylinders bearing the sensitive photographic paper, and to each magnet is attached a semicircular mirror, which reflects the rays from a gas jet to one of the cylinders, and thus describes by a curved line the oscillations of the magnet. A second semicircular mirror is fixed to the pier on which the instrument stands, and consequently describes a straight line, or zero, from whence the curves are measured. To avoid errors attending sudden changes of temperature, underground vaults are always chosen for magnetic observations, and also on account of light being more easily and perfectly excluded. ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.Since the performance of Franklin’s famous kite experiment, by which he determined the identity of lightning with the electrical discharge from a machine, much attention has been devoted, not only to that form of atmospheric electricity which displays itself in the thunder-cloud, but to the electric condition of the air in all states of the weather. These researches have established the fact that the air is always in an electrical condition, even when the sky is clear and free from thunder-clouds. The instruments employed for ascertaining the kind and intensity of atmospheric electricity are called Electroscopes. Fig. 65 shows a modification of Saussure’s Electroscope, the basis of which is a narrow-mouthed flint glass bottle with a divided scale to indicate the degree of divergence of the gold leaves or straws. To protect the lower part from rain, it is covered by a metallic shield about five inches in diameter. Bohnenberger’s Electroscope indicates the presence and quality of feeble electric currents. Peltier’s Electrometer yields the same result by the deflection of a magnetic needle. This latter has been in use at Brussels for thirty years, and at Utrecht for twenty years, and is highly recommended. 65. Singer’s Atmospheric Electroscope is an efficient form of the instrument in which an ordinary gold-leaf electrometer has attached to its circular brass plate a brass rod two feet in length, with a clip at its upper extremity It is chiefly important for the ordinary observer to know that the occurrence of thunder and lightning should be always noted in the column headed “Remarks.” 66. The destructive effects of lightning are too well known to need description here; the means, however, by which these may be averted demand a brief notice. Lightning when discharged from a cloud will always choose the better of any two conductors which may present themselves. The stone of a church steeple and the wood of a ship’s mast are bad conductors, but a galvanized iron wire rope is the best possible conductor, and accordingly this material is now generally employed for the purpose. A lightning conductor consists of three parts: 1, the OZONE.The atmosphere, besides holding the vapour of water diffused throughout its mass, contains also minute traces of carbonic acid and ammonia, and a very remarkable substance called Ozone. Oxygen, one of the component gases of the atmosphere, is capable of existing in two conditions; one in which it is comparatively passive, and another in which it possesses exceptional chemical activity, dependent apparently upon its electrical condition, and in which state it possesses a peculiar smell which has caused it to be named ozone. 16.Greek ozo, I smell. Although in minute quantities it is favourable to health, when existing in undue proportion it irritates the mucous membrane of the nose and throat, producing painful sores. It attacks india-rubber, bleaches indigo, and oxidizes silver and mercury, differing in all these points from ordinary atmospheric oxygen. The chemical energy it possesses (which exceeds that of ordinary oxygen as much as the latter exceeds atmospheric air as an oxidizing agent) affords the means of ascertaining its presence and quantity. It liberates iodine from its combination with potassium, and free iodine colours starch a deep blue. Schonbein, the discoverer of ozone, found that when strips of paper previously saturated with starch and iodide of potassium and dried were exposed freely to the air but protected from rain and the direct action of the sun, they underwent a peculiar discoloration (when immersed in water) after an exposure of 24 hours. A scale of tints numbered from one to ten afforded the means of comparative observation, and thus the Ozonometer was constructed, and a means established of registering the amount of ozone in the air of various localities from day to day. Schonbein also observed that the proportion of ozone was largely augmented after heavy falls of snow. For the exposure of the ozone papers, an ozone cage is employed, as shown at Fig. 67. 67. Ozone may be prepared artificially as a disinfectant by cautiously mixing without friction or concussion equal parts of peroxide of manganese, permanganate of potash, and oxalic acid. For a room containing 1,000 cubic feet, two teaspoonfuls The most important and interesting series of facts, however, connected with ozone are those established by the researches of M. Houzeau, who states:— 1. That country air contains an odorous oxidizing substance, with the power of bleaching blue litmus, without previously reddening it, of destroying bad smells, and of bluing iodized red litmus. 2. That this substance is ozone. 3. That the amount of ozone in the air at different times and places is variable, but this is at most 1/700,000 of its volume, or 1 volume of ozone in 700,000 of air. 4. That ozone is found much more frequently in the country than in towns. 5. That ozone is in greatest quantity in spring, less in summer, diminishes in autumn, and is least in winter. 6. It is most frequently detected on rainy days, and during great atmospheric disturbances. 7. That atmospheric electricity is apparently the great generator of ozone. The subject is one of great interest in its bearings on health, and opens a wide field of scientific research, as may be inferred from the opinion expressed by the Vienna Congress, which is that “the existing methods of determining the amount of ozone in the atmosphere are insufficient, and the Congress therefore recommends investigations for the discovery of better methods.” Mr. Lowe has published the valuable weather warnings tabulated on page 94, which are interesting as showing from a given number of observations the value of each phenomenon:—
Among the animals whose movements give weather warnings few are more trustworthy than the leech. The reader may verify this by placing one in a broad glass bottle, tied over with perforated leather, or bladder. If placed in a northern aspect, the leech will be found to behave in the following manner:— 1. On the approach of fine or frosty weather, according to the season, it will be found curled up at the bottom. 2. On the approach of rain, snow, or wind, it will rise excitedly to the surface. 3. Thunder will cause it to be much agitated, and to leave the water entirely. In the case of temperature for five-day periods, the same principle holds good; 17.“Recent Progress in Weather Knowledge,” by R. H. Scott, F.R.S. “If we revert to the instance first cited, that of rain, the result is, not that if it once begins to rain the chances are in favour of its never ceasing; all that is implied is, that the chances are against its ceasing on a definite day, and that they increase with the length of time the rain has lasted. The problem is similar to that of human life: the chance of a baby one year old living another year is less than that of a man of thirty. “The practical meaning of all this is, that although we know that a compensating anomaly for all extraordinary weather exists somewhere on the earth’s surface, e.g., the very common case of intense cold in America, while we have a mild winter in Britain, there is no reason as yet ascertained to anticipate that this compensation will occur at any given place during the year. In other words, when definite conditions of weather have thoroughly established themselves, it is only with great difficulty that the courses of the atmospheric currents are changed.” J. AND W. RIDER, PRINTERS, LONDON. Transcriber’s note: Footnotes moved to end of paragraph. All scale values in illustration captions retained. The value may not be visually correct. All fractions regularised to numerator/denominator. Page 3, ‘Reaumur’s’ changed to ‘RÉaumur’s,’ “RÉaumur’s scale” Page 9, closing single quote changed to double quote. Page 12, full stop appended to illustration caption, “Scale about 1/20.” Page 16, full stop appended to illustration caption, “9.” Page 17, semicolon changed to full stop, “...it has never been frozen.” Page 23, first footnote changed from “8 R = 18 F.” to “8 R = 50 F.” Page 27, ‘vice versÂ’ changed to ‘vice versa,’ “...proportion, and vice versa,...” Page 30, dash changed to space, “29·500 inches.” Page 34, ‘Hook’ changed to ‘Hooke,’ “...invented by Dr. Hooke.” Page 37, ‘Aneriod’ changed to ‘Aneroid,’ “...by means of Barometer or Aneroid,...” Page 39, space changed to stop, “...between nine and ten p.m.” Page 42, space inserted between ‘no’ and ‘less,’ “...at no less than 212 miles.” Page 46, illustration number added to caption, “38. Damp Detector.” Page 51, comma moved to after ‘weather,’ “In cold calm weather,...” Page 57, ‘!’ changed to ‘,’ “cloud reflector,” Page 58, ‘2.’ changed to ‘2nd.,’ “...and 2nd. Velocity of Motion.,” Page 74, degrees changed to minutes, “57° 29´ N.” Page 79, ‘Guage’ changed to ‘Gauge,’ “Lind’s Anemometer or Wind Gauge...” Page 83, powers changed from subscripts to superscripts, “V2.” Page 87, reference in text to Fig. 65 changed to Fig. 64, “...and Fig. 64 an arrangement...” Page 94, full stops added after ‘STARS’ and ‘ANIMALS.’ |