As sugar is the basis or groundwork of the confectioner's art, it is essentially necessary that the practitioner should carefully study and observe the difference in its qualities, the changes which it undergoes or effects when combined with other articles in the process of manufacture, and also the different forms which it assumes by itself, at various stages. Without this knowledge, a man will never become a thorough and efficient workman, and it can only be acquired by practice and experience.

The first process which it undergoes, in the hands of the confectioner, is that of clarification. It is conducted on the same principle as the refining of sugar, although not carried out in every particular.

Clarification of Raw Sugar.—For every six pounds of sugar required to be clarified, take one quart of water, the white of an egg, and about half a tea-cupful of bullock's blood. Less than a pint will be sufficient for 112 pounds; but if a very fine, transparent, and colorless syrup is required, use either charcoal, finely powdered, or ivory-black, instead of the blood. Put the white of an egg in the water, and whisk it to a froth; then add either of the other articles mentioned, and the sugar; place the pan containing the ingredients on the stove-fire, and stir them well with the spatula, until the sugar is dissolved, and is nearly boiling.

When the ebullition commences, throw in a little cold water to check it; this causes the coarser parts to separate more freely, by which means the whole of the impurities attach themselves to the clarifying matter used; continue this for about five minutes, using about one pint of water to every six pounds of sugar, or more, until you consider the whole of the dross is discharged, and there remains a fine clear syrup. Then place it by the side of the stove, and carefully remove with a skimmer the scum which has formed on the top; it may also be taken off as it rises, but I find the best method is to let it remain a short time after it is clarified, before it is removed; otherwise, if you take it off as it rises, part of the syrup is also taken with it. When either charcoal or black is used, it must be passed through a filtering-bag, made of thick flannel, in the shape of a cone, having a hoop fastened round the top, to keep it extended, and to which strings are sewn, that it may be tied or suspended in any convenient manner; what runs out at first will be quite black; return this again into the bag, and continue doing so until it runs fine and clear.

If a little lime, about a spoonful, or any other alkali is added to the sugar, with the water, etc., it will neutralize the acid which all raw sugars contain, and they will be found to stand much better after they have been manufactured, by not taking the damp so soon. This is not generally done by the trade, but it will be found beneficial if practiced.

To Clarify Loaf Sugar.—This is clarified by mixing the whites of eggs with water, without any other assistance, for having been previously refined, it does not require those auxiliaries again to separate the coarser parts, unless it is of an inferior quality, or an extra fine syrup, as for bonbons and other fancy articles, as required. When it is necessary to have a very fine sparkling grain, in that case break your lump into small pieces, and put it in a preserving-pan, with a sufficient quantity of water to dissolve it, in which has been mixed the white of an egg and powdered charcoal; as for raw sugar, following those instructions already given. After the sugar has been drained from the bag, pass some water through, to take off any which may be left in the charcoal, which you use for dissolving more sugar.

The scum should always be reserved when charcoal or black is not used, to mix with the articles of an inferior quality.

The best refined loaf sugar should be white, dry, fine, of a brilliant sparkling appearance, when broken, and as close in texture as possible. The best sort of brown has a bright, sparkling, and gravelly look. East India sugars appear finer, but do not contain so much saccharine matter, yet they are much used for manufacturing the best sort of common sweetmeats, when clarified, instead of loaf sugar.

Degrees of Boiling Sugar.—This is the principal point to which the confectioner has to direct his attention; for if he is not expert in this particular, all his other labor and knowledge will be useless; it is the foundation on which he must build to acquire success in his undertakings.

There are seven essential points or degrees in boiling sugar; some authors give thirteen, but many of these are useless, and serve only to show critical precision in the art, without its being required in practice; however, for exactness, we will admit of nine, viz: 1. Small thread. 2. Large thread. 3. Little Pearl. 4. Large Pearl. 5. The blow. 6. The feather. 7. Ball. 8. Crack. 9. Caramel. This last degree derives its name from "a Count Albufage Caramel, who discovered this method of boiling sugar."

In describing the process, I shall proceed in a different manner to other writers on the subject, by classing it under different heads, according to the uses to which it is applied.