EDWARD THE ELDER AND DUNSTAN.

Settlement of the Danes—Edward the Elder and his Cousin—Reconquest of the Danelagh—Edward becomes King of all England—Conspiracy of Alfred against Athelstan—Wars in Northumbria—The Death of Edwin—The Battle of Brunanburgh—The Power of Athelstan—Edwin's Wars with the Danes—Their Submission to Edmund—Rebellion and Reconquest—The Conquest of Cumberland—Death of Edmund—Final Conquest of Northumberland—The Rise of Dunstan—His Banishment—Edgar's Rebellion—His Accession to the Throne—Wars with the Welsh—Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury—His Ecclesiastical Policy—The Reign of Edward the Martyr—Dunstan's Struggles with the Opposition—Death of the King.

By this time the settlement of the Danes in England was complete, and exhausting though the process had been by which it was accomplished, in the end it strengthened the nation through the infusion of a new and more vigorous element. Practically speaking, they occupied, as we have seen, the whole of the district north of the Thames, but in some parts the new colonists must have been exceedingly few in numbers. The Danish population lay thickest round what were called the "five Danish boroughs," i.e. Lincoln, Derby, Leicester, Stamford, and Nottingham. After the first storm of their fury was spent, the Danes mixed readily with the English population, and became converts to Christianity. The fusion was easy, because the language and customs of the two races were very similar. The title, Earl, which at this period is introduced into our language, is of Danish origin; so are the local divisions of Yorkshire, known as Ridings and Wapentakes; so also the names of towns ending in "by" and "holm."

Both parties were weary of war—of mutually destroying each other—and a brief repose was welcome. To the new settlers the retreat of their piratical countrymen was as acceptable as to the English; for the hordes who invaded the island with no other object than obtaining plunder cared very little whose possessions they ravaged; and the consequence was that the Danes suffered at times as much as the earlier possessors of the soil.

Alfred was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder, who had not long obtained possession of the crown before a civil war broke out, which ultimately strengthened the English as a nation. Alfred's elder brother, Ethelred, left two sons, the eldest of whom, Ethelwald, having arrived at man's estate, claimed the throne, on the plea that his grandfather, Ethelwulf, had no right to make a will leaving the succession to his three sons, according to their seniority, to the exclusion of their issue—a claim which in these days would undoubtedly be looked upon as valid, but was worthless when the monarchy was elective. A numerous party supported his pretensions, and Edward was compelled to draw the sword to maintain himself in his inheritance.

Defeated in his first attempt, the pretender fled to the Danes, who received him hospitably, and, seeing the use which such an instrument might be made of in their hands, at once proclaimed him King of Northumbria.

In this crisis Edward proved himself worthy of his illustrious father, and acted with a promptitude and decision which ultimately secured to him his crown. Immediately after the battle of Wimborne, in which he had defeated his rival, he marched against him and his new allies, his army increasing daily. The Danes, unable to resist the overwhelming forces led against them, dismissed the pretender from amongst them, and ceded several strongholds as the price of peace.

In 910 the war between the two races broke out once more, and lasted, with brief intermission, for ten years; when the Danes, finding they were losing ground, sued for peace. Those who inhabited Mercia were the first to submit; the East Anglians followed their example, and the Northumbrians were the last.

Edward was materially assisted in these struggles by his warlike sister EthelflÆd, the widow of the Alderman of Mercia, who, despite her sex, appears to have delighted in arms. Aided by her brother's troops, she attacked the Welsh, who had sided with the Danes, and obliged them to pay tribute to her. Nothing, indeed, is more remarkable in the history of this time than the ease and rapidity with which Edward and his sister reconquered the Danelagh, as the district inhabited by the Danes was called. The reason of this prompt submission was that the two warriors, as we may fairly call them, were not content with merely winning battles, but took care to fortify and garrison the towns that fell into their hands. At the time of her death, in 918, the Lady of the Mercians had reconquered the country as far north as York, and was actually treating for the surrender of that city. She had, moreover, built a strong fortress at Chester, which held down the turbulent Welsh. On her death, however, Edward took the administration of Mercia into his own hands, instead of leaving it to be governed by a separate alderman. This is an important step in the consolidation of the kingdom.

There was something like a general rising in 921, but it was easily suppressed, and soon the various states of England and Scotland submitted in succession. The kings of the Welsh submitted in 922; they were followed by the king of the Scots, by Northumbria and Strathclyde. So Edward became lord of all England. The Danish invasion had indirectly helped towards this end, for by it several of the lines of under-kings had been exterminated. The kings of England from this time forward regarded themselves as emperors, and showed their independence of the Emperor of Germany by assuming the titles of Imperator and Basileus. Edward did not do so as far as we know, probably because he had no time, for in the year which followed his great success he died (925).

Edward was a great man; in statecraft and war certainly his father's equal. He was held in high regard on the Continent; five of his daughters married foreign princes, of whom Otho afterwards became Emperor of Germany. But in learning and in purity of life he compares indifferently with Alfred, and it has been thought that Athelstan, who succeeded him, was illegitimate.

Concerning Athelstan's mother, the chronicler, William of Malmesbury, relates that she was the daughter of a shepherd, and, whilst watching her father's flock, fell asleep in the fields, and had an extraordinary dream. She dreamt that a globe of light, resembling the moon, shone out from her body, and that all England was illuminated by it. This she related to Edward's nurse, who was so struck by it that she adopted her, gave her a good education, and purposely threw her in the way of the king, by whom she had three children.

On the death of Edward, the Mercians and West Saxons chose Athelstan for king, to the secret discontent of many of the nobility and clergy. Concerning this conspiracy, which was headed by a member of the royal house, named Alfred, William of Malmesbury tells a story which, even though we find it repeated several times in old English history, can hardly be accepted as genuine.

Alfred, he says, had even taken private measures to seize Athelstan at Winchester, and put out his eyes. The plot being discovered, he was apprehended by the king's order, but would confess nothing; he obstinately persisted in protesting his innocence, and offered to purge himself by oath in the presence of the Pope, an ordeal looked upon in that age as infallible in discovering the truth, since he who was rash or wicked enough to forswear himself was certain, according to the superstition of the time, to meet with a signal punishment. Athelstan agreed to this, and sent him to Rome, to take the oath before Pope John. Shortly after the arrival of the accused in Rome, word was sent that Alfred, having sworn to his innocence before the Pope, suddenly fell into a fainting fit, which, lasting three days, ended with his life; and that the Pope, convinced by his death that he had committed perjury, had ordered his body to remain in the English college till the king's pleasure should be known; upon which Athelstan, pleased with being thus rid of his enemy, consented he should have Christian burial. His lands were, however, confiscated, and given to Malmesbury monastery, and the king had inserted in the grant an account of the whole conspiracy, "to testify to the world that he dedicated to God what was His own."

The death of Edward, and the troubles which succeeded, affording the Danes, as they imagined, a favourable opportunity to revolt, they had begun to take such measures as obliged Athelstan to march into their country; but as they had not yet drawn their forces together, they were so surprised by the arrival of the king on their frontiers, that, without endeavouring to defend themselves, they returned to their allegiance; and Sithric of Northumberland sued for peace upon whatever terms the king might be pleased to impose. Athelstan being desirous to live in peace with the Danes, in order that he might have time to establish himself on the throne, not only pardoned his revolt, but gave him his sister Edith in marriage, on condition that he would receive baptism.

The dissensions in the north being appeased, he returned to Wessex, where he soon afterwards heard of the death of Sithric, who left two sons, Anlaff and Godfrid, by a former marriage. Athelstan, instead of disbanding his army, instantly retraced his march, and the two princes avoided falling into his hands only by a hasty flight, which gave him an opportunity of making himself master of all Northumbria, except the castle of York, which alone held out against him.

Although he had taken the precaution of placing garrisons in most of the cities, the conqueror was far from feeling himself secure in his new possessions. The sons of Sithric were still at liberty, as well as Reginald, another Danish prince, who had fled with them. It was not known what had become of the latter. Anlaff had fled to Ireland, whilst his brother, Godfrid, had found an asylum with the King of Scotland, Constantine, whom Athelstan immediately summoned to deliver him into his hands. Constantine being perfectly aware that he was not in a position to refuse anything to the victor at the head of a powerful army, promised to deliver the prince into his hands; but whilst he was preparing for his journey, Godfrid made his escape, either through the negligence or connivance of Constantine, who, however, met Athelstan, accompanied by Owen, King of Cumberland. Athelstan admitted Constantine's excuses for the Danish prince's escape, but, if English historians are to be credited, obliged both the kings to do homage for their kingdoms.

Before Athelstan quitted the north, Godfrid made an attempt upon York, by means of the castle, where he had still some friends; but failing in the attempt, he surrendered himself to the King of England, who received him kindly, and allowed him a handsome pension; but in a few days he wearied of that way of life and escaped to sea, where he lived the life of a pirate.

For the next few years Athelstan was occupied in wars against the Welsh, whom he drove back behind the Wye, and caused to pay tribute. The western Welsh also gave him trouble; Athelstan therefore expelled those who inhabited Exeter, and extended the boundaries of his kingdom as far as the Parret.

In 933 Athelstan lost his brother Edwin, who was apparently drowned at sea. William of Malmesbury, however, relates the following story concerning his death:—

One of those fawning flatterers who are the curse of courts persuaded the king that his brother Edwin had connived at the conspiracy of Alfred. This accusation Athelstan unhappily gave ear to, and affected to believe the charge, whether he did or not. The prince was arrested by his unnatural brother, who, fearing to put him to death publicly, had him conveyed on board a vessel without sails or rudder, which he ordered to be let drift away to sea. Edwin, to avoid perishing by hunger, cast himself into the waves, and was drowned.

No sooner was the object of his terror removed for ever, than remorse seized upon the murderer, who, to quiet his conscience, founded the Abbey of Middleton, in Dorsetshire, where masses were daily offered for the repose of the victim's soul, and Athelstan did penance for seven years.

Edwin's accuser had not reason long to rejoice at the success of his malicious calumnies; for one day, as he waited at table with the king's cup, one of his feet slipping, he would have fallen, had he not, by the nimbleness of the other leg, recovered himself. Whereupon he jokingly said, "See how one brother helps another!" which silly jest cost him his life; as Athelstan, who overheard it, and considered it as a covert reproach addressed to himself, ordered him to be immediately executed; and thus, says the old chronicler, revenged his brother's death by that of his false accuser.

The whole story, however, is a mass of contradictions, and is demolished by Professor Freeman, who points out that tales about people being exposed in boats are very numerous; that the story about brother helping brother is related again in the history of Earl Godwin; and, further, that the story evidently belongs to the first years of the reign, whereas we know from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that Edwin died in 933, and that it is improbable that Athelstan would have been doing penance at the time when he was winning his greatest victories.

For in the year 937 Athelstan was engaged in war against a formidable combination, and won immortal renown. The Danes by this time had formed settlements in Ireland as well as England, and we are told that one of their kings, named Anlaff, whom some think to be identical with Anlaff, the son of Sithric, others a different person, arrived from Ireland with many ships, and was joined by Owen of Cumberland, and Constantine, the king of the Scots. According to a late, and not very trustworthy, account of the campaign, it would appear that it was arranged so secretly that Anlaff entered the Humber with a fleet of six hundred sail, and invaded Northumbria before Athelstan had any intelligence of his landing; and with such forces, and the assistance of the Danes settled there, he easily became master of several small ill-guarded towns. But the fortified places that were well garrisoned by the English stopped his progress, and gave Athelstan time to draw his army together. He used such expedition, that he surprised the two confederate princes upon their march towards Bernicia. It had been agreed that this small kingdom, if conquered, should be apportioned to the King of Scotland; but the prompt measures of Athelstan, by surprising the invaders, totally defeated their plans.

This much is certain; that a great battle was fought at Brunanburgh, probably near Beverley in Yorkshire, an account of which is preserved in the famous song of the battle of Brunanburgh, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In this battle Athelstan's brother Edmund distinguished himself, and the slaughter was immense.

Of the enemy, five Danish kings, seven earls, and the son of the King of Scots were slain; but Anlaff and Constantine made good their escape. Various stories have gathered round this campaign, in one of which Olaf is represented as going into the English camp in the guise of a minstrel just before the battle, to discover what he could concerning the resources of the enemy, which is evidently a duplicate of the tale told concerning Alfred.

Three years afterwards Athelstan died, after a brief but glorious reign. The marriage connections between his sisters and foreign princes had caused his influence throughout western Europe to be very great; for instance, we find that it was through his influence that Louis d'Outremer, the son of Charles the Simple, was restored to the throne of the Franks. He was also a benefactor of religious foundations, particularly of the abbey of Malmesbury. Further, he was a lawgiver of considerable originality, and added a number of excellent statutes to those of his grandfather. His ordinances are particularly directed to the enforcement of the system of mutual assurance and association, which forms a distinctive feature of Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence.

Athelstan was succeeded by his brother, who had covered himself with so much renown at the battle of Brunanburgh.

Edmund was only eighteen years of age when, in A.D. 940, he succeeded to the crown of his brother, whose activity and vigour had secured to England for a few years before his death a profound repose. The Welsh paid their tribute with the utmost regularity; the Danes, who had so frequently experienced his prowess, desired no better than to remain at peace; and the unfortunate Anlaff, who, after the defeat of his hopes, had once more retired to Ireland during the reign of his conqueror, did not renew his attempts.

No sooner was it known, however, that Athelstan was dead, and a mere youth upon the throne, than the Danes prepared to revolt. Several years of fighting followed, but the accounts are so conflicting that it is almost impossible to harmonise them. According to one version, Anlaff, who was informed of all that passed, deemed that the time was come for the prosecution of his claims, and entered into a treaty with Olaf, King of Norway, for assistance, which being liberally granted, he once more appeared in his father's kingdom of Northumbria, and obtained possession of York, the inhabitants opening the gates to him.

This example being followed by most of the neighbouring towns, the long-exiled prince soon found himself in a position to carry the war into Mercia, where his countrymen received him as a deliverer, and by their united efforts many strong places were recovered which Edward had taken from them.

Edmund, though both young and inexperienced, appears to have inherited the courage of his race. The success of the enemy, instead of depressing him, rendered him more eager for battle; he marched at once to the north, and Anlaff, with equal confidence, advanced to meet him.

A battle was fought between these rival princes near Chester, in which success was so equally balanced, that it was impossible to say on which side it preponderated. Then, according to the chronicler Simeon, the Archbishops of York and Canterbury, to avoid any further effusion of blood, prevailed upon the parties to make peace. Anlaff was permitted to retain possession of the kingdom of Northumbria, and the whole country north of Watling Street.

The Northumbrians had not reason long to rejoice at the restoration of Anlaff, which they had so ardently desired; for this prince, having contracted a large debt with the King of Norway for the troops he had lent him, was anxious to pay it; and to this end laid heavy taxes on the people, by which he forfeited their affection. The inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of Deira were the first that revolted, and having sent for Reginald, his brother Godfrid's son, crowned him king at York.

Reginald was no sooner on the throne, than he armed against his uncle, who was also preparing to dispossess him. The quarrel between these two kings incited Edmund to march towards the north at the head of an army, to appease the troubles there, being apprehensive they might give occasion to the foreign Danes to return into England. He arrived upon the borders of Northumbria, when the uncle and nephew, wholly intent upon their private quarrel, thought of nothing less than repulsing the English. He probably might with ease have made himself master of that kingdom; but he was contented with procuring peace between the two kings, in such a manner that Reginald was to keep the crown he had lately received; but at the same time, Edmund obliged them both to swear allegiance to him, and be baptised, himself standing godfather.

This forced peace did not last long, and Edmund had hardly returned into Wessex, when the two Danish princes took up arms to free themselves from his yoke, having engaged the Mercian Danes and the King of Cumberland to espouse their quarrel. Whereupon Edmund immediately marched into Mercia, and before the Danes there could be joined by the Northumbrians, took from them the five boroughs, i.e. Leicester, Stamford, Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln; and then, advancing with the same expedition towards Northumbria, he surprised the two kings before they had drawn their forces together. This sudden attack threw the Northumbrians into such disorder, that their rulers, fearing to fall into the hands of Edmund, believed it their only refuge to abandon the island, where they could not possibly remain in safety, so closely were they pursued; and as their flight deprived the Danes of all hope of withstanding Edmund, they threw down their arms, and gave him allegiance. According to other accounts, the attack upon the Mercian Danes is placed earlier in the reign.

Before he returned to Wessex, Edmund resolved to punish the King of Cumberland, who, without cause, had taken part with the Danes; and he easily subdued that petty kingdom, whose forces bore no proportion to his own, and presented it to the King of Scotland, in order to attach him to his interest, and prevent him from again assisting the Northumbrians; reserving, however, the sovereignty of it, and obliging that king to do him homage, and appear at the court of England at the time of the solemn festivals, if summoned.

Edmund was not wholly employed in military affairs; and some of his laws still exist which demonstrate how desirous he was of the people's welfare and happiness. Having observed that pecuniary punishments were not sufficient to put a stop to robberies, which were generally committed by people who had nothing to lose, he ordered that, in gangs of robbers, the oldest of them should be condemned to be hanged.

Probably this prince would have rendered his people happy, had his reign been longer; but a fatal accident robbed him of his life. On May 26th, 946, as he was solemnising a festival at Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, Liofa, a notorious robber, though banished the kingdom for his crimes, had the effrontery to enter and seat himself at one of the tables in the hall where the king was at dinner. Edmund, enraged at his insolence, commanded him to be apprehended; but perceiving he was drawing his dagger to defend himself, leaped up in fury, and, catching hold of him by the hair, threw him on the ground. Liofa stabbed him in the breast with his dagger, and the King immediately expired upon the body of his murderer. Thus died Edmund in 946, in the twenty-fourth year of his age, and the sixth of his reign. By Elgiva, his wife, he had two sons, Edwy and Edgar, who did not succeed him, on account of their minority; Edred, his brother, being placed on the throne by the unanimous election of the Witena-gemot. His glorious deeds had deservedly gained for Edmund the title of "Magnificent."

Edred was a mere youth when he succeeded to the crown, a circumstance which the Northumbrians were not slow to take advantage of, and instantly attempted to throw off their allegiance; but after a variety of contests they were ultimately subdued, and Earl Oswulf appointed to govern them. The last-mentioned personage, who was an Englishman, appears to have acted with no less vigour than prudence, erecting many strongholds, and placing efficient garrisons within them, to keep the natives of the newly-conquered province in subjection. These methods were so efficacious that Northumbria remained, for a long time tranquil, and the descendants of Oswulf were earls there for quite a hundred years.

The young king, perfectly master of his own kingdom, and respected by the Scots, had now time to direct his attention to religious affairs, and during his brief reign contributed largely to churches and monasteries. To this course of action he was led by the powerful influence of Dunstan, one of the most remarkable personages in old English history, and the first of those great ecclesiastical statesmen who have played a leading part in the annals of Britain.

Dunstan was born in the year 925, and being of aristocratic family, rapidly obtained advancement in the Church. By the age of eighteen he had become abbot of Glastonbury, and from the first proved an extremely able administrator, restoring the discipline of the monastery, and rebuilding the great church. His personal character appears to have been morbid and eccentric, but the stories told concerning him come for the most part from his enemies, and it is extremely difficult to know what to make of them. He had been an old playmate of Edred's, and the weak and sickly king was entirely in his hands. Dunstan by no means confined his activity to ecclesiastical matters, but took an active part in the war against the Northumbrian Danes. It was probably on his advice that the country was bestowed as an earldom on Oswulf. His object here, as elsewhere, was to allow the smaller kingdoms to maintain their individuality, their own laws and customs, subject to the leadership of Wessex. Such a policy was naturally not popular in Wessex, and when Edred, "the Chosen," as he was called, died in 955, Dunstan was doomed to a period of eclipse.

In 955 the Witena-gemot chose Edwy, the son of Edmund, for their king, and within a short while Dunstan was banished from the kingdom. As to the facts of his fall very little is accurately known; indeed, the annals of the time are so completely under the influence of party spirit, that it is impossible to make out what is true and what is false. The partisans of Dunstan represent Edwy as being exceedingly depraved. About the time of his election he married Ælfgifu, or Elgiva, as the Latin form of the name was written. It appears that she was within the degrees prohibited by the church of Rome, and Dunstan's party not only tried to prevent the marriage, but afterwards spoke of the queen as if she were Edwy's mistress. According to a well-known story, Edwy on the day of his coronation retired from the feast at which all the notabilities of the realm were present to enjoy the society of his bride. Dunstan, angry at what he considered a slight upon the company, rushed into the apartment and dragged the king from her. Such conduct is quite possible in the case of an overbearing man like the abbot, and fully explains any dislike that the king and queen may have entertained towards him. His fall took place about 956; and, as far as we can gather, it was effected through his enemies at Glastonbury, who were angry at the zeal with which he pushed his reforms.

EDGAR THE PEACEABLE BEING ROWED DOWN THE DEE BY EIGHT TRIBUTARY PRINCES. (See p. 54.)