The feeding of cattle, once a subordinate part of the operations of the farm, has now become one of its most important departments, and a large number of minute and elaborate experiments have been made by chemists and physiologists with the view of determining the principles on which its successful and economical practice depends. These investigations, while they have thrown much light on the matter, have by no means exhausted it, and it will be readily understood that the complete elucidation of a subject of such complexity, touching on so many of the most abstruse and difficult problems of chemistry and physiology, and in which the experiments are liable to be affected by disturbing causes, dependent on peculiarities of constitution of different animals, cannot be otherwise than a slow process. In considering the principles of feeding, it is necessary to point out, in the first instance, that the plant and animal are composed of the same chemical elements, hence the food supplied to the latter invariably contains all the substances it requires for the maintenance of its functions. And not only is this the case, but these elements are to a great extent combined together in a similar manner,—the fibrine, caseine, albumen, and fatty matters contained in animals corresponding in all respects It is a matter of familiar experience, that if the food be properly proportioned to the requirements of the animal, its weight remains unchanged; and the inference to be drawn from this fact obviously is, that the food does not remain permanently in the system, but must be again got rid of. It escapes partly through the lungs, and partly by the excretions, which do not consist merely of the part which has not been digested, but also of that portion which has been absorbed, and after performing its allotted functions within the system, has become effete and useless. When the weights of the excretions, the carbon contained in the carbonic acid expired by the lungs and the small quantity of matter which escapes in the form of perspiration, are added together, they are found in such a case to be exactly equal to the food. If the animal be deprived of nutriment, it immediately begins to lose weight, because its functions must continue—carbon must still be converted into carbonic acid to maintain respiration—and the excretions be eliminated, although diminished in quantity, because they no longer contain the undigested portion of the daily food, and the substances already stored up in When an animal is fed in such a manner that its weight remains constant, a balance is produced between the supply of nutriment contained in the food and the waste of the tissues, the gain from the former exactly counterpoising the loss occasioned by the latter. If in this state of matters an additional supply of food be given, this balance is deranged, and the nutriment being in excess of the loss, the animal gains weight, and it continues to do this for some time, until it reaches a point at which a new balance is established, and its weight again becomes constant; and this is due to the fact that the animal becomes subject to an additional waste, consequent on the increased weight of matter accumulated in its tissues. If, after the animal has attained its new constant weight, the food be a second time increased, a further gain is obtained, and so on, with every addition to the supply of nutriment, until at length a certain point is reached, beyond which its weight cannot be forced. In fact, each successive increase of weight is obtained at a greater expenditure of food. If, for example, a lean animal is taken, and its food increased by a given quantity, it will rapidly attain a certain additional weight, but if another extra supply of food be given, the increase due to it will be much more slowly attained, and so on until at length an additional increase can only be secured by the long-continued consumption of a very large quantity of food. The great object of the feeder is to obtain the greatest possible increase with the smallest expenditure of food, and to know the point beyond which it is no longer economical to attempt to force the process of fattening. It has been already observed that the animal tissues are composed of albuminous or nitrogenous compounds, fat, mineral matters, and water; but the proportions of these substances have, until lately, been very imperfectly known. Water is well known to be by far the largest constituent, and amounts in general to about two-thirds of the entire weight, and it has been generally supposed that the nitrogenous matters stood next in point of abundance, but a most important and elaborate series of experiments by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have shewn that they are greatly exceeded by the fatty matters. The following table contains a summary of the composition of ten different animals in different stages of fattening. The first division gives the composition of the carcass, that is, the portion of the animal usually consumed as human food; the second that of the offal, consisting of the parts not usually employed as food; and the third that of the entire animals, including the contents of the stomach and intestines: [Transcriber's note: Column titles are printed vertical, which is not possible to do here. Therefore they are replaced with a 2-3 character code, explained here] Column titles:
From this table it appears that, in the carcass, the proportion of fat is, in general, even in lean animals, much greater than that of nitrogenous compounds. In one case only, that of the fat calf, are they equal. But in the lean sheep there is more than one and a half times as much fat as nitrogenous matters, in the half fat sheep twice, in the fat sheep four times, and in the very fat sheep about six times as much. As a general result of the analyses it may be stated, that in the carcass of an ox in good condition, the quantity of fat will be from two to nearly three times as great as that of the so called albuminous compounds; in a sheep three or four times, and in the pig four or five times as great. In the offal, including the hide, intestines, and other parts not usually consumed as food, the proportion is very different,—the quantity of fat being much smaller, and that of nitrogenous compounds considerably larger. Taking a general average of the whole, the following may be assumed as representing approximately the general composition of a lean and a fat animal:—
The data given in the preceding table, coupled with a knowledge of the relative weights of the lean and fat animals, enable us to ascertain the composition of the increase during the fattening process. It is obvious, from the material diminution of the per centage of water, that the matters deposited in the tissues must contain a much larger proportion of dry matters than the whole body; and the reduced per centage of nitrogenous matters shews that
Hence it may be stated in round numbers, that for every pound of nitrogenous matters added to the weight of a fattening animal, it will gain ten pounds of fat, and three of water. These are the proportions over the whole period of fattening, but it is probable that during the last few weeks of the process the ratio of fat to nitrogenous matters is still higher. In considering the composition of the food of animals, it will be readily admitted that the milk, the nutriment supplied by nature for the maintenance of the young animal, must afford special instruction as to its requirements during the early stages of existence, and indicate, at least, some of the points to be attended to under the altered conditions of mature life. The following table gives the average composition of the milk of the most important farm animals:—
In examining these, and all other analyses of food, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the flesh-forming and the respiratory elements; the former including the nitrogenous compounds which are used in the production of flesh, the latter, the non-nitrogenous substances which produce fat and support the process of respiration. The former, however much they may differ in name, are nearly or altogether identical in chemical composition, the latter embracing two great classes—the fats which exist in the body and the saccharine compounds, including the different kinds of sugar and starch which are not found in the animal tissues. It was at one time supposed that these substances were entirely consumed in the respiratory process, and eliminated by the lungs in the form of carbonic acid and water, but it has been clearly shewn that they may be and often are converted into fat, and accumulated in the system. Careful experiments on bees have demonstrated that when fed on sugar they continue to produce wax, which is a species of fat, and animals retain their health and become fat, even when their food contains scarcely any oil. There is, however, an important difference between these two classes of substances as regards their fat-producing effect. A pound of fat contained in the food is capable of producing the same quantity within the animal; but the case is different with starch and sugar, the most trustworthy experiments shewing that two and a half pounds of these substances are necessary for that purpose. Hence we talk of the fat equivalent of sugar, by which is meant the amount of fat it is capable of producing, and which is obtained by dividing its quantity by 2·5. Applying this principle to the analyses of the milk, it appears that the relative proportions of the two great classes of nutritive substances stand thus:
Taking the general average, it may be stated, that for every pound of flesh-forming elements contained in the food of the sucking animal, it consumes respiratory compounds capable of producing one and a half pounds of fat, and this does not differ materially from the ratio subsisting between these substances in the lean animal. When the young animal is weaned, it obtains a food in which the ratio of nitrogenous to respiratory elements is maintained nearly unchanged; but the latter, in place of containing a large amount of fatty matters, is in many cases nearly devoid of these substances, and consists almost exclusively of starch and sugar, mixed most commonly with a considerable quantity of woody fibre. A very large number of analyses of different kinds of cattle food have been made by chemists, but our information regarding them is still in some respects imperfect. The quantity of nitrogenous compounds and of oil has been accurately ascertained in almost all, but the amount of starch, sugar, and woody fibre is still imperfectly determined in many substances. This is due partly to the fact that the nitrogenous and fatty matters were formerly believed to be of the highest importance, and might be used as the measure of the nutritive value of food to the exclusion of its other constituents, and partly also to the imperfect nature of the processes in use for obtaining the amounts of woody fibre, starch, and sugar. These difficulties have now, to a certain extent, been overcome, and the quantity of fibre and of respiratory elements has been ascertained, and is introduced, so far as is known, in the subjoined table: Table giving the Composition of the Principal Varieties of Cattle Food.Note.—Where a blank occurs in the oil column, the quantity of that substance is so small as to be unimportant. When the respiratory elements and fibre have not been separated, the sum of the two is given.
It is at once obvious that in many of these descriptions of food the ratio of the flesh to the fat-forming constituents differ very widely from that existing in the milk, and this becomes still more apparent when the latter are represented in their fat equivalent, as is done for a few of them in the following table:—
It is especially note-worthy that those varieties of food, which common experience has shewn to promote the fattening of stock to the greatest extent, contain in many instances the smallest quantity of respiratory or fat-forming elements relatively to their nitrogenous compounds. This is especially the case with the different kinds of oil cake, the leguminous seeds, clover, hay, and turnips. On the other hand, in the grains the ratio is nearly that of one to three, or similar to that found in fat cattle; while in the straw, the excess of the respiratory elements is extremely great. These facts appear at first sight to be completely at variance with the composition of the increase of fattening animals, as ascertained by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert already referred to, and which have shewn that for every pound of nitrogenous compounds, nearly ten pounds of fat TABLE shewing the Amount of each Class of Constituents, stored in the increase, for 100 consumed in the Food.
Hence it appears that the pig makes a better use of its food than the sheep, retaining twice as much of its solid constituents within the body, from which may be deduced the important practical conclusion, that the former must be fattened at a much smaller cost than the latter. Looking at the individual constituents, it appears that, in the sheep, less than one-twentieth of the nitrogenous compounds, and one-tenth of the non-nitrogenous substances contained in the food, remain in the body; and a knowledge of these facts tends to modify the conclusions which might be drawn from the composition of the increase in the fattening animal. Its influence may be best illustrated by a particular example. If, for instance, the increase in a sheep contained its nitrogenous and respiratory elements in the ratio of 1 to 10, it would be totally incorrect to supply these substances in the food in the same proportions. On the contrary, it would be necessary at the very least to double the proportion of the former, because one-tenth of the fat-forming elements are absorbed, and only one-twentieth of the nitrogenous. On further consideration, also, it seems unquestionable that the quantity of the nutritive elements stored up must depend to a large extent on the nature of the food and the The proper adjustment of the relative quantities of the great groups of nutritive elements in the food is a matter the importance of which cannot be over-rated, for it is in fact the foundation of successful and economical feeding; and this will be readily understood if we consider what would be the result of giving to an animal a supply of food containing a large quantity of nitrogenous and a deficiency of fat-forming compounds. In such circumstances, the animal must either languish for want of the latter, or it is forced to supply the defect by an increased consumption of food, in doing which it must take into the system a larger quantity of nitrogenous compounds than would otherwise have been requisite, and in this way the other elements, which are present in abundance, are wasted, and the theoretical and practical value of a food so constituted may be very different, and it is only when the Although the presence of a sufficient quantity of nutritive compounds in the food is necessarily the fundamental matter for consideration, its bulk is scarcely less important. The function of digestion requires that the food shall properly fill the stomach, and however large the supply of nutritive matters may be, their effect is imperfectly brought out if the food is too small in bulk, and it actually may become more valuable if diluted with woody fibre, or some other inert substance. At first sight this may appear at variance with the observations already made as to the effects of woody fibre in protecting the nutritive matters from absorption; but practically there are two opposite evils to be contended against, a food having too small a bulk, or one containing so large a proportion of inert substances as to become disadvantageously voluminous. The most favourable condition lies between the two extremes, and the natural food of all herbivorous animals is diluted with a certain amount of It has been already remarked that there are three great purposes to which the food consumed is appropriated; the increase of weight of the animal—the object the feeder has in view and desires to promote—the supplying the waste of the tissues, and the process of respiration, both of which are sources of loss of food, and which it must necessarily be his aim to diminish as much as possible. The circumstances which must be attended to in order to do this are sufficiently well understood. It has been clearly established that the natural heat of the animal is sustained by the consumption of a certain quantity of its food in the The old feeders kept their cattle in large open courts, where they were exposed to every vicissitude of the weather, but as intelligence advanced, we find them substituting, first hammels, and then stalls, in which the animals are kept during the whole time of fattening at an equable temperature. The effect of this is necessarily to introduce a considerable economy of the food required to sustain the animal heat; but it also produces a saving in another way, for it diminishes the waste of the tissues. It has been ascertained by accurate experiments made chiefly on man, that muscular exertion is one of the most important causes of the waste of the tissues, and of increased respiratory activity. We cannot move a limb without producing a corresponding consumption of matters An extension of the same principle has led to the use of food artificially heated, but it is doubtful whether the advantages derived from it are commensurate to the increased expense of the process; at least opinions differ among the best informed practical men on this subject. Many other matters, besides these mentioned, exercise an important influence on the feeding of stock, such as the general health of the animal, the breed, etc. These are subjects, however, which bear more directly on practical agriculture, and need not be discussed here. The judicious feeder will not only give due weight to the principles already discussed in all he does, but he must take into consideration the extent to which they are liable to be modified in particular cases. He must also attend to the cost of different kinds of food, and the value of the manure produced by them, subjects of much importance in a practical point of view, and which must influence him greatly in choice of the particular substances he supplies to his cattle. |