ON THE WORD "JIHAD" AS OCCURRING IN THE KORAN AND WRONGLY TRANSLATED "WARFARE."

1. The popular word JihÁd or Jihd, occurring in several passages of the Koran, and generally construed by Christians and Moslems alike as meaning hostility or the waging of war against infidels, does not classically or literally signify war, warfare, hostility or fighting, and is never used in such a sense in the Koran. The Arabic terms for warfare or fighting are Harab and KitÁl.

2. The words Jahada, and JÁhada signify that a person strove, laboured or toiled; exerted himself or his power, or efforts, or endeavours, or ability employed himself vigorously, diligently, studiously, sedulously, earnestly or with energy; was diligent or studious, took pains or extraordinary pains[322]; for example, the term JÁhada fil-amr signifies that a person did his utmost or used his utmost powers, or efforts, or endeavours, or ability in prosecuting an affair.[323] The infinitive noun JihÁdan also means difficulty or embarrassment, distress, affliction, trouble, inconvenience, fatigue, or weariness.[324] Jauharce, a lexicologist of great repute, whose work is confined to classical terms and their significations, says in his SihÁh that JÁhada fi Sabeelillah or MojÁhadatan and JihÁdan and also Ajtahada and TajÁhada mean expending power and effort. Fayoomee, author of Misbahel Moneer, which contains a very large collection of classical words and phrases of frequent occurrence, also says that JÁhada fi Sabeelillah JihÁdan and Ajtahada fil Amr mean he expended his utmost efforts and power in seeking to attain an object.

3. It is only a post-classical and technical meaning of JihÁd to use the word as signifying fighting against an enemy. Mr. Lane says, "Jahada came to be used by the Moslems to signify generally he fought, warred or waged war against unbelievers and the like." This signification is now given by those lexicologists who do not restrict themselves to the definition of classical terms or significations, like the author of KÁmoos. Mr. Lane, the celebrated author of Maddool KÁmoos an Arabic-English lexicologist, clearly shows that the definition of JihÁd, as the act of waging war, is only of Moslem origin and is not classical. And I will show in sequence that the Moslem usage of JihÁd, as signifying the waging of war, is a post-Koranic usage, and that in the Koran it is used classically and literally in its natural sense.

4. What is called the classical language of Arabia or the loghat, and is an authority for the genuineness of the Arabic terms and their significations, is the language which was spoken throughout the whole of the Peninsula previous to the appearance of Mohammad. After the death of Mohammad the language was rapidly corrupted by the introduction of foreign words. This was doubtless owing to the great extension of the Mohammadan power at this period. The classical poets are those who died before these great conquests were effected, and are the most reliable authorities for Arabic words and their significations, and they are called JÁhilÍ. Next to the classical poets are the post-classical, or Mokhadrams, IslÁmi and Mowallads. Mokhadram is a poet who lived partly before and partly after Mohammad, and who did not embrace IslÁmism during the life of the Prophet. The IslÁmi poets are the Mohammadan poets of the first and second centuries of the Hejira, and Mowallads, the poets of the fourth rank, followed the IslÁmis. The earliest classical poets date only a century before the birth of Mohammad, and the latest, about a century after his death. The period of the IslÁmi poets is the first and second centuries,—i.e., those who lived after the first corruption of the Arabic language, but before the corruption had become extensive.

The Mowallads co-existed with the general and rapid corruption of the language from the beginning or middle of the second century.

5. The words Jahd and JihÁd and their derivations, amounting to fourteen in number, occur in the following passages in the Koran:—

6. There are altogether 36 verses in the Koran containing the words noted above, in the following chapters and verses:—

Chapter ii, 215.
Do. iii, 136.
Do. iv, 97.
Do. v, 39, 58, 59.
Do. vi, 109.
Do. viii, 73, 75, 76.
Do. ix, 16, 19, 20, 24, 41, 44, 74, 80, 82, 87, 89.
Do. xvi, 40, 111.
Do. xxii, 77.
Do. xxiv, 52.
Do. xxv, 54.
Do. xxix, 5, 7, 69.
Do. xxxi, 14.
Do. xxxv, 40.
Do. xlvii, 33.
Do. xlix, 15.
Do. xl, 1.
Do. xli, 11.
Do. xlvi, 9.

7. Out of the above, the verses containing the words "Jahd" and "Johd,"—i.e., v, 58; vi, 109; xvi, 40; xxiv, 52; xxxv, 40; and ix, 80, marked *, are altogether out of dispute, as in all the former passages, except the last one, its obvious meaning is most or utmost solemn oaths,[325] or most energetic oaths or strongest or most forcible oaths,[326] and the latter signifies small provisions upon which a man possessing a little property can live with difficulty. The rest are of two kinds—first, the verses occurring in the Meccan Suras. As then the Moslems had not resorted to arms in their defence, though suffering from persecutions, Mohammadan commentators and jurists and Christian writers are unanimous in construing JihÁd in its natural sense of exertion, effort, energy, and painstaking. Secondly, the verses containing the same words occurring in the Medina Suras, which were revealed or published when the Moslems had taken arms in their defence. As regards this period, the words are considered to have an entirely new and an altogether fortuitous meaning, viz., a religious war of aggression. Even some verses of this period are rendered by Mohammadans and Christians in the literal sense of the word.

8. I fully admit that in the post-classical language of the Arabs,—i.e., that in use subsequent to the time of Mohammad, when the language was rapidly corrupted, the word "JihÁd" was used to signify "warfare" or fighting, but this was in a military sense. Since that period the word has come to be used as meaning the waging of a war or a crusade only in military tactics, and more recently it found its way in the same sense into the Mohammadan law-books and lexicons of later dates. But the subsequent corrupt or post-classical language cannot be accepted as a final or even a satisfactory authority upon the point.

Mr. Thomas Chenry, M.A., writes:[327]—

9. All commentators, paraphrasts, and jurisconsults admit that the primary and original signification of the words "Jahad" and "JihÁd" is power, ability, and toil, and that its use, as making wars or crusades, is conventional and figurative. Ibn Attiah says regarding verse 69, Chapter XXIX, that it is Meccan, and was revealed before the enjoining of the Orfee or conventional JihÁd (vide Fat-hul bayan fi maquasidil Koran, Vol. II, page 517, by Siddik Hussan). Khateeb Koostlane, in his Irshadussari, a paraphrase of Bokhari, says that "JihÁd is derived from Jahd, which means toil and labour, or from Johd, which means power. And in technical language it means fighting with infidels to assist Islam" (Vol. V, page 26). Mohammad Allauddin Al Haskafi (died 1088 A.H.), the author of Dur-ral-MukhtÁr, a commentary on Tanviral AbsÁr, by Sheikh Mohammad Al TamartÁshi (died 1004), says in the chapter on JihÁd, that "in the classical language it is the infinitive noun of JÁhada fi Sabil-Allah, and in the language of the law it means inviting the infidels to the true faith and fighting with him who does not accept it." And Ibn Ábidin ShÁmi, in his annotation on the above work, says:

10. It is admitted by all lexicologists, commentators, and jurisconsults that JihÁd in classical Arabic means to labour, strive earnestly, and that the change of its meaning or the technical signification occurred only in the post-classical period, i.e., long after the publication of the Koran. It is obviously improper, therefore, to apply the post-classical meaning of the word where it occurs in the Koran. This fact is further admitted by all the Mohammadan commentators and English translators of the Koran, who render the word in its original and literal meaning in all the Meccan and in the early Medinite Suras or Chapters of the Koran.[328]

It is only in a few of the latest chapters of the Koran published at later dates at Medina, that they (the commentators and translators) deviate from the original meaning, and prefer the subsequent unclassical and technical signification of waging war or crusade.

11. I herein place in juxtaposition the several English translations of the word "JihÁd," together with its etymological derivation and several grammatical forms, to show, in the first place, that Mr. George Sale and the Rev. J.M. Rodwell and other European authors generally give the literal, original, and classical meaning; and in the second place, to show how they differ in giving various meanings, literal and technical, in some passages to the same word in the same verses.

It will be observed from a perusal of the statement, that the Rev. Mr. Rodwell, M.A., is more correct than the earliest English translator of the Koran, Mr. George Sale, and the latest, Mr. W.H. Palmer. The latter is the most unsatisfactory of all in this respect, as everywhere, except in six places—XXIX, 7; V, 39, 59; IV, 97; and IX, 74, 89—he translates JihÁd as meaning fighting—a circumstance which not unnaturally leads to the supposition that he had paid but slight heed to the context.

12. The above verses quoted with remarks. I will now proceed to give a correct translation of all the verses of the Koran referred to above, in the chronological order of the chapters of the Koran as far as it is ascertained together with my observations and remarks on them, and quotations from Mohammadan commentators when necessary.

I.—THE MECCAN SURAS.

Chapter XXXI is one of the oldest of the Meccan Suras, having been revealed between the sixth and tenth year of the Prophet's mission. The admonition relates to a man's behaviour to his parents. He is enjoined to treat them with kindness, but not to obey them if they lead him to polytheism.

Here "JÁhadÁ" means "if they two (parents) task or toil thee, or make efforts and endeavour (that thou shouldst associate any god with God)," and none of the translators and commentators take the word to mean the making of war or hostilities or fighting.

This evidently relates to the Koran, or the warning mentioned in the preceding verse, and it is wrong to translate "JihÁd" as meaning to fight strenuously with them, or as inciting to strenuous fighting as translated by Henry Palmer (Vol. II, p. 88). Mr. Sale and the Rev. Mr. Rodwell do not translate it fighting, and so Mohammadan commentators. Fakhr-ud-din Razi (died 606 A.H.), the Imam, in his great commentary says:

Messrs. Sale and Palmer translate the word here as meaning fighting, which is wrong, as it is unclassical and not literal. Rodwell translates it "do valiantly," and Sir William Muir says it is used in the more general sense (Vol. III, p. 32).

This verse is a brief and concise version of the great maxim in Deut. VI. 5; Mark XII. 30; and Luke X. 27,—

Dr. Sprenger (Life of Mohammad, p. 159) explains this verse of the seven slaves purchased and manumitted by Abu Bekr. They had been tortured for professing Islam, shortly after Mohammad assumed the prophetic office. The flight referred to in verse 111th is the early Abyssinian flight. These verses relate to the persecutions endured by humble and needy Moslems from their townspeople of Mecca. These Moslems, after being persecuted and forced as far as denying God, while their remaining steadfast in the faith, had to flee elsewhere, and then suffered much in their wanderings; but they endured their labours and fatigues, losses, disadvantages both in body and mind, patiently. There is no allusion to fighting or waging war. The Rev. Mr. Rodwell and Mr. Palmer are both wrong in translating 'JÁhadoo' as fighting. Sale is right in not translating it as fighting, but he is too paraphrastic when he translates, "and who have since fought in defence of the true religion," as their "JihÁd" was only their great exertion and toil in suffering from persecutions.

Mr. Palmer is wrong in making JÁhada and YojÁhido to mean fighting strenuously. Mr. Sale and the Rev. W. Rodwell are right in translating by "striveth" and "efforts" respectively, and so is Sir W. Muir in taking it into, what he styles, the general sense of the verse (The Life of Mahomet, Vol. III, p. 32).

None of the commentators take the word JÂhad in this passage to mean fighting or crusade, and it is difficult, therefore, to understand why the word should have been distorted from its proper literal and classical meaning in other places of the same book.

Mr. Palmer translates the word here as meaning "fought," contrary to Mr. Sale, the Rev. Mr. Rodwell, and Sir William Muir, who translate it "endeavour," "effort," and "strive." The conventional term JihÁd, meaning crusade or warfare, was not in use in the time of the revelation of the Koran.

Sale renders the word "most solemnly;" Rodwell, "most sacred oath;" Palmer, "most strenuous oath."

Sale's rendering is "most solemn oath," Rodwell's, "mightiest oath," and Palmer's, "most strenuous oath."

II.—THE MEDINITE SURAS.

Mr. Sale and the Rev. Mr. Rodwell translate Jahadoo as those who fight, and Mr. Palmer as those who wage war; but there is no reason to change the proper meaning of the word. Sir William Muir translates the verse thus:—

In a footnote he says:—"The word JihÂd is the same as that subsequently used for a religious war; but it had not yet probably acquired its fixed application. It was employed in its general sense before the Hejira, and probably up to the battle of Badr."[331] I have only to add that the word never acquired its fixed application during the lifetime of the Prophet, nor is it used as such in any chapter of the Koran either before or after the Hejira.

The connection of flight mentioned in the verse as put together with JihÁd, shows that it means the labour, toil, and distress which befel the fugitives in leaving their families unprotected in the hands of their persecutors on their expulsion from their country.

The Rev. Mr. Rodwell translates JÁhadoo, "did valiantly," and does not agree with Sale and Palmer, who translate it, "fought strenuously," or "fought well."

By the connection of enduring patiently, the word JÁhadoo probably means those who toiled and suffered in their exile from Mecca.

Sale renders the word JihÁd (or JÁhadoo) in this passage as
meaning "employed their substance and their persons in
fighting."
Rodwell ... "Spent their substance and themselves."
Palmer ... "Fought strenuously with their wealth and person."

As the word JihÁd has been applied here to both one's-self and his substance or wealth, it cannot mean "fighting," even if taken in the technical signification.

Sale ... "Fought."
Rodwell ... "Fought."
Palmer ... "Fought strenuously."

There is nothing in this passage to warrant a departure from the literal and proper signification of the word JÁhadoo, and using it in a post-Koranic sense.

Sale ... "Fought."
Rodwell ... "Fought."
Palmer ... "Fought strenuously."

There is no valid excuse here for changing the signification of the word JÁhadoo into that which is never used in the Koran or in the classical Arabic.

Sale ... "Most solemn oath."
Rodwell ... "Most binding oath."
Palmer ... "Most strenuous oath."

Sale ... "Who fight valiantly."
Rodwell ... "Valiant."
Palmer ... "Fought valiantly."

"MojÁhid" is not synonymous with "MokÁtil"

Sale ... "Who fought valiantly."
Rodwell ... "Who fought valiantly."
Palmer ... "Fight strenuously."

Devotion or worship has been divided into two kinds,—bodily, which also includes mental; and pecuniary or monetary, and the believers are exhorted here to worship God both bodily and mentally.

Sale: 1st ... "Those who employ their fortune and their
substance for the religion of God."
2nd ... "Those who employ their fortune and their
substance."
3rd ... "Those who fight."

Rodwell: 1st ... "Those who fight valiantly."
2nd ... "Contend earnestly."
3rd ... "Strenuous."
Palmer: 1st ... "Strenuous."
2nd ... "Strenuous."
3rd ... "Strenuous."

I have already explained the two sorts of worship or service of God—bodily and mental. The same applies here too.

Sale ... "Most solemn oath."
Rodwell ... "Most solemn oath."
Palmer ... "Most strenuous oath."

Sale ... "Attack the infidels with arms and the
hypocrites with arguments."
Rodwell ... "Make war."
Palmer ... "Fight strenuously."

Sale ... "Wage war."
Rodwell ... "Contend against."
Palmer ... "Strive strenuously."

The word JÁhid is the same in both the passages, yet the translators differ in their interpretation of it. As there had been no war against the hypocrites, the word cannot be held to bear the construction they put on it, even if we deprived it of its proper signification. In one place Sale takes JÁhid to mean "attacking with arms," and in another he takes it in the sense of attacking with arguments.

There is no signification of "attacking" in JihÁd, but only that of "exerting," and the verse simply means, "exert thyself in preaching to, and remonstrating with, the unbelievers and hypocrites, and also be strict towards them,"—i.e., not to be smooth with them, nor to be beguiled by them.[332]

Sale translates JihÁdan as meaning "to fight in the
defence of my religion."
Rodwell ... "To fight on my path."
Palmer ... "Fighting strenuously."

The translators quoted above say that HÁtib had informed the Meccans of an intended surprise of Mecca on the part of Mohammad with the view of making terms for his own family, which had been left there. On this occasion the passage was revealed. This shows that the campaign of Mecca is termed JihÁd. But Sir William Muir does not agree with them. He says in a footnote:—"The opening verses of the sixtieth Sura are said to refer to HÂtib; but they appear to have a general bearing against too great intimacy with the Coreish during the truce and to be, therefore, of a prior date."[334]

35. HÁtib's story. The story regarding HÁtib's revelation of the intended attack upon Mecca by Mohammad, is not supported by authentic and trustworthy traditions. The authentic tradition of Bokhari[335] only states that the occasion of the verse being revealed was in the case of HÁtib, but does not say that it was during the campaign of Mecca, nor that the information contained anything about the intended campaign. The authentic tradition only says that the report contained information regarding some of the affairs of the Prophet.

Besides this, it is wrong to translate in kun tum kharajtum Jihadan fi Sabili, as "if ye go forth to fight in defence of my religion," or "if ye go forth to fight on my path," or "if ye go forth fighting strenuously in my cause." It simply means, "if you have come out striving in my cause," and the sentence is a complement or correlative of the verse, meaning, if you have come out of Mecca, striving, or to strive, in my cause, suffering from exile and undergoing the afflictions and distresses of living homeless, leaving your family and property unprotected, and all these pains (JihÁd) you have taken to please me, then you should not make friends with my foes and your foes, who do not believe in the truth which has come to you, and have driven out the Prophet and yourselves (from Mecca, your home) only for the reason that you believe in God your Lord.

36. "The true believers are those only who believe in God and his Apostle and afterwards doubt not; and who (JÁhadoo) strive with their substance and their persons on the path of God. These are the sincere."

Sale here translates JÁhadoo those "who employ their substance and their persons in the defence of God's true religions."

Rodwell ... "Contend with their substance and their persons."

Palmer ... "Fight strenuously with their wealth and persons."