Before beginning a description of manufacturing processes, a precise definition of leather may be given. Laymen usually describe leather as "hides tanned with bark," Since the introduction of modern processes, however, this is only partly true. In any case, the definition is very broad. The primary objects of treating raw hides and skins to produce leather is to make them imputrescible and impart various degrees of pliability. These qualities are essential, but the simpler the methods used to attain them, the greater the strength of the leather produced. The number of materials that will produce leather is legion. Whereas oak bark was almost exclusively used for tanning until the last century, there are now at least twenty useful vegetable tanning materials. The active ingredient of all of these materials is tannin, a colloidal or uncrystallisable substance. Correctly speaking, the term "tanning," used to designate the process of converting hides into leather, should be confined to the use of vegetable tannins; unfortunately, the trade has largely adopted the word in many other processes of making leather. For example, large quantities of leather are produced by the use of minerals, and especially of chrome salts; where the latter is used, the leather is said to be "chrome-tanned," although "chromed" would be a more accurate definition. One mineral process of making leather, namely, that involving the use of alum, or alumina sulphate, and salt, is technically described as "tawing," The conversion of skins The preliminary processes are of great importance, as they determine to a large extent the character of the finished leather. Mistakes made in the early processes can never be effectually remedied. The first operation is technically known as soaking, and its object is to cleanse the hides or skins thoroughly. This is quite simple in the case of raw hides received direct from the slaughterhouse, as it is merely a question of soaking them in clean, soft water for a few hours. If the only water available is hard, 1/2 lb. of borax should be added for every 100 lb. of raw hides. Borax is useful in any case, as it is a splendid cleanser and a very useful chemical in the tannery. Most of the hides used in the United Kingdom, however, are wet-salted (i.e., salted in the wet state), as it has become customary for most butchers to send hides and skins to the auction markets in all the principal towns, where they are offered for sale every week. It is still a debatable point among tanners as to whether it is better to buy hides direct from the butcher or through these markets. It is certainly a great advantage to put hides into work quickly (although not before they are quite cool), as time is saved in the soaking process, and there is practically no loss of gelatinous matter. On the other hand, the tanner is able to buy just the selection of hides that he wants from the auction markets. Under this arrangement, several days must elapse before the tanner receives them, and it is, therefore, absolutely necessary to preserve them, otherwise they begin to decompose quickly. The first sign of decay is the slipping of the hair, which, in that condition, may be pulled out of its roots quite easily. Micro-organisms Besides salting them, there are other ways of curing hides and skins, and a large proportion is simply dried or dry-salted, the salt in the latter method being applied while the hides are moist. Dry hides, whether "flint" (i.e., simply dried) or salted, require special treatment to make them soft and pliable, without which it would be impossible to convert them into leather. Soaking in plain water is insufficient, as it would need too much time, during which there would be a great loss of gelatine. The use of chemicals and mechanical motion are required; sometimes chemicals alone will thoroughly soften the hides, but this is not often the case. Both alkalies and acids may be used for softening dried hides, and it is difficult to say which gives the better result, Another old method, which has not yet disappeared, is to make use of stale soak liquors, which, although efficient for softening purposes, cause a great loss of hide substance owing to the active growth of bacteria, which are developed as a result of the water becoming foul and putrid with dirt, blood, and dissolved gelatinous matter. This method of soaking is always dangerous, apart from the great loss of gelatine, for the thin grain (hyaline layer) is liable to be eaten away in patches, a defect which greatly reduces the value of leather. Dried hides are not only difficult to treat successfully in the different processes of making them into leather, but they are also of highly speculative value, although they are well preserved when completely dry. It sometimes happens, however, that the drying is imperfect; it may, for example, have been so rapid that the exterior of both sides is thoroughly dried before the air is able to penetrate into the centre. The result is that the interior of the hide putrefies, but there may be no indication of this until the hides are soaked and softened, when they may fall to pieces and are only saleable to glue makers. Again, the hides may be dried in the hot sun and be badly blistered, with the same result as regards their value for leather. If the hides are dried in too high a temperature, they become horny and rarely make satisfactory leather owing to the difficulty of softening them. It is estimated that quite 10 per Apart from the commercial risk in buying dry hides, their import, especially from Russia and China, is a source of danger in conveying the disease of anthrax to workmen. It has been conclusively proved that dried hides are much more liable than wet-salted hides to cause infection. So far, only one country, the United States of America, has taken steps to prevent the importation of the disease of anthrax, although most countries have issued regulations in regard to the precaution to be taken to avoid infection by anthrax in those factories where imported hides, wool, hair, and bones are treated. It would seem that the most rational method would be to disinfect the hides before they are shipped, as it certainly appears to be unwise to import any form of disease; unfortunately, the first regulations issued by the American Government proved to be impracticable, as the suggested method had the effect of lowering the quality of the hides, and making the preliminary operations troublesome. Their second scheme, consisting of baling a certain number of hides in canvas disinfected with a 0.02 per cent. solution of mercuric chloride, is more satisfactory, for, although it may not sterilise all the anthrax spores inside the bale, it should prevent them reaching other goods. This Government order only applies to hides, skins, hair, and wool coming from countries where anthrax is known to be prevalent. The disease of anthrax is generally contracted by workers through sores or cuts in the hand; the bacilli multiply rapidly in contact with the blood, and the first sign of disease is usually shown by a red swelling or pimple in the neck. If treated at this stage by anti-anthrax serum a cure is often effected, but if treatment Besides the danger to workers, there is the risk of cattle being infected. The effluent from tanneries where anthrax-infected skins are treated contains millions of bacilli, and it is doubtful if the latter are sterilised even when the effluents are precipitated and aËrated before they are run into streams or municipal sewers. In any case, the sediment may be infected, and this ultimately finds its way to the land. Until the various European Governments insist on imported hides from anthrax-infected areas being sterilised before shipment, the use of a disinfectant such as lysol or a similar cresylic compound, or bichloride of mercury, seems imperative in the first process of soaking. The use of these disinfectants would make the waste liquors fit for discharge into sewers or streams. The English Public Health and River Pollution Acts have had a great effect in improving the hygiene of the tannery, although leather manufacturers have not welcomed them, as, in some cases, they have meant considerable expense in providing settling tanks for the treatment of waste liquors. The Public Health Act gives power to any town corporation to declare as offensive trades such businesses as tanning, hide and skin merchanting, fellmongering, tallow melting, etc., and several boroughs have taken advantage of this law. In such cases, anyone desiring to set up business in these trades must apply to the Town Council, who may or may not give their consent; in fact, a few applications to establish these businesses have lately been refused. While the curing of wet hides with salt or in brine is more satisfactory than drying them, the use of ordinary The cure of hides in hot countries, especially where cheap salt is unavailable, is often unsatisfactory. A method of obviating this difficulty has been found in China, where, in one or two of the principal towns, hides and skins are preserved by freezing them in cold-storage. Although this process stiffens the hides, it is said to be fairly satisfactory if they are allowed to soften naturally before soaking them. If submitted to rough treatment before the stiffness relaxes, there is a great danger of the hide fibres being ruptured. Freezing removes the difficulty of softening which is experienced in treating dried hides, while it preserves the hide substance. After the operation of soaking, hides and skins are ready to be treated for the removal of the hair. There are several ways of loosening the hair sheaths, but most of them consist of treating the hides in a solution of a caustic alkali. The use of a solution of common lime was practically universal until a few years ago, but nowadays sulphide of sodium, red arsenic sulphide (realgar), and caustic soda are also used, generally in admixture with the lime. Another process consists in sweating the hides in a heated room, preferably a damp cellar, where rapid decomposition of the hides soon loosens the hair. A dehairing process has lately been invented and patented, however, which may supersede all of the methods just described. This process consists in treating the hides with various enzymes which loosen the hair so effectively that it can be removed more easily than the hair of a limed hide. The fine, short hairs underneath are also removed, whereas by the lime method a further process is needed to get rid of these hairs. The The usual method of liming is carried out in brick pits of square or rectangular shape with a sloping front on which the hides or skins can be piled to drain (Fig. 16). There is a great variation in the quality of lime, and in all cases it should be tested for the available percentage of caustic lime. A good sample should contain between 70 and 80 per cent. of pure lime. Buxton lime, which can be obtained in powdered form, is particularly suitable for the tannery. The ordinary To prepare the lime for the pits it is slaked (i.e., formed into a paste with water. All the lumps should be reduced to paste in order to avoid lime burns, which are caused by direct contact of the hides with pieces of unslaked lime. A certain quantity of the paste is then added to the water or old lime liquor in the pit, and the liquor is well plunged up to hasten solution and diffusion of the lime. A long wooden pole, with a flat block of wood attached, is used for this purpose and also for pressing down the hides under the surface of the liquor. Two methods of liming are in vogue: (1) the single-pit system, and (2) the three-pit system; but the latter is the better method, as it is more easily controlled, and causes less loss of gelatine than the former. In this system the liquor is strengthened with fresh lime for each pack of skins. Its great fault is that the pit is only cleared out at long intervals in order to take advantage of the mellowness of used lime liquors; hence, there is frequently large accumulation of insoluble limestone and other sediment from the lime, in addition to a quantity of dissolved gelatine, which rapidly accumulates putrefactive bacteria. When the pit is cleared out the process of liming is disturbed for a time, as fresh lime liquors are not beneficial to hides and skins, and the loosening of the hair is delayed. On the other hand, the three-pit system permits liquors of uniform strength, and the process is continued without interruption. Each new pack is first placed in the The liming process in pits takes from six days to a month, according to the character of the leather required. Light calf skins may be ready for unhairing within a week, while hides intended to be finished for "raw hide leather" may be left in the pits quite a month, Lime by itself does not readily attack the hair bulbs, and the slowness of the process has led to the introduction of other chemicals, generally for use in conjunction with lime. The principal of these are sulphide of sodium and red arsenic. Mixtures of sulphide of sodium and lime, or red arsenic and lime are now largely used, the former for hides, calf, and sheep skins, and the latter for goat and kid skins. Both sulphide of sodium and arsenic dissolve keratinous matters (horns, hair, etc.) and workmen should, therefore, be provided with rubber gloves to prevent the loss of their finger nails. Sulphides naturally lower the commercial value of the hair removed and, if used alone, destroy it. In admixture, however, the hair has some value, although it is not so good as that removed by the use of pure lime. Against this, however, there is a great saving of time and less loss of hide substance and, therefore, increased weight of leather. Sulphide of sodium is prepared in crystallised or concentrated form; the In the pit method of liming, it is essential that the liquors be frequently plunged, while the hides should be taken out ("hauled"), piled to drain for a few hours, Sulphide of sodium and lime are sometimes made into a thin paste, which is applied to the hair side of hides and skins with a mop or fibre brush. The hides are then folded down the back with the flesh sides out; other hides are similarly treated and placed in a pile. This saves a great amount of labour in pitting, and, if the paste is fairly strong, consisting of 2 to 2-1/2 per cent. sulphide, the hair can be removed after a few hours. With so many depilatories available, it is not surprising that several patents have been granted and numerous suggestions made with the object of trying to improve on the old process of liming. While there may be some objections to lime, it has a few advantages which are lacking in other depilatories. These advantages are not perfectly understood theoretically, but the tanner recognises them in practice. Hence, there are very few tanneries where lime is not used at all, and the only progress that seems to have been made in the process of liming consists in the admixture of sulphide of sodium or arsenic to hasten the process, reduce the loss of gelatine, and, in the case of arsenic, to improve the fineness of the grain of skins for boot upper and glove leathers. One patented method consisted in forming the calcium hydrate within the hide by treating it with a 1 per cent. solution of caustic soda and then with a 1-1/2 per cent. solution of calcium chloride, the reaction of these two chemicals forming calcium hydrate (lime) Another method consists in mixing a small quantity of soda ash with the lime, thereby hastening the process by increasing the alkalinity of the liquor. A somewhat complicated method was introduced a few years ago, but, although it seemed advantageous from a chemical point of view, it has not proved successful in practice so far as is known, probably because of its expense. In consisted of four distinct processes. The hides were first mopped on the hair side with a thin paste of lime and arsenic, and dehaired after twenty-four hours. In the second process, they were treated in a drum for twenty-four hours with a solution of sodium sulphide, they were then drummed for twenty-four hours in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, and finally placed in a vat or pit containing a solution of lime and a little arsenic for two to five days. After washing, etc., they were ready for tanning. The sulphide of sodium swelled the hides or skins by distending the fibres, and the natural fat is converted into a soluble soap. The hyposulphite arrests the action of the sulphide and acts as an antiseptic. In modern yards it is a growing practice to use mechanical power to keep the hides in motion, instead of handling them. The hides are attached to poles joined to a strong cross beam, which, in its turn, is connected by stout iron rods with the main pullies and shafting. The installation is expensive, but it saves an enormous amount of manual labour and time, while After loosening the hair and opening up the fibres, the next operation is dehairing or depilation, or, as it is generally described in the trade, "unhairing." The hair must slip quite easily before beginning this operation, otherwise a number of them will be left in the hide and will be difficult, or almost impossible, to remove later on if the hides are being made into sole leather. These hairs present an unsightly appearance and lower the value of the leather. Depilation may be done by hand or machine; but the latter method is rapidly superseding the former, as it is in nearly every other process of leather manufacture. In the manual process, the hair is removed by scraping it off in a downward direction with a blunt, convex-shaped knife, fitted into two wooden handles (Fig. 17), the hides being placed on a sloping convex beam (Fig. 15) supported by a trestle. A series of grooves under the beam permits it to be placed at any angle. The beam (different from that used by curriers) may be of wood, iron, steel, or zinc-covered wood. There are several types of unhairing machines, of which the Leidgen more nearly approaches hand work than any other. The skins are placed on a soft bed of felt, and the working roller, fitted with spiral knives, is brought into contact with the hide and scrapes off the hair. If hides intended for sole leather are being dehaired, the short hairs which are not removed by the dehairing knife are carefully scraped off with a sharp knife. Other kinds of hides and skins are freed from short hairs in a later operation. When the hides are dehaired, they are sometimes submitted at once to the next operation of fleshing, which, as its name implies, consists in removing loose flesh and fat from the "flesh" side, that is, the side near the carcase. The extent to which this operation is carried out depends on the quality of the finished leather. Naturally, the more flesh left on the greater the weight, particularly as loose flesh will absorb a large quantity of tannin, and, unfortunately, of adulterants which are frequently used for weighting common leathers. The flesh ought to be removed in all cases, for the loose flesh forms very poor and spongy leather. Where hides and skins are tanned and then dried for sale to leather dressers and finishers, there is often the tendency to leave far too much loose flesh on them, with the object of producing as much weight of leather as possible. From the point of view of economy, this is a mistake, for the loose flesh must be removed during the dressing process, whereas, if it had been taken off at first, both material and time would have been saved in the process of tanning. If the fleshing is not done directly after dehairing, the hides or skins should be placed in a weak lime liquor, Fig. 19 FLESHING KNIFE Fleshing by hand demands great skill. The knife used (Fig. 19) is similar to the unhairing knife, except that it has two edges. The cutting is done with the convex edge, which has to be kept very sharp. The concave edge need not be sharp, its use being limited to scraping off loose particles of flesh, while the parts not removed by this means are cut off with the sharp edge. The knife is held slantingly, with the blade almost parallel with the beam. The strokes should be short and in a semicircular direction, otherwise it is difficult to avoid cutting the skins. This manual operation is now largely superseded by machinery, and will, no doubt, soon be obsolete. The early types of fleshing machines were not a success, but the modern machine is very effective. There are several makes on the market, but in most cases the working tool is of similar construction and consists of a long cylinder to After the operation of fleshing, it is necessary to get rid of the lime in the hides, for, if they were put directly into tan liquors, the lime, being alkaline, would neutralise the acidity of the tan liquors and retard the beginning of the tanning process for a long period. The leather would ultimately be poor, thin, stained, and brittle. Up to the process of deliming, there is not a great deal of difference in preparing the hides and skins for the large variety of leathers, but between the fleshing and the tanning processes the work varies considerably, and largely determines the character of the finished The modern method of deliming hides intended for sole leather is to use a weak solution of acid, or an acid salt. For this purpose, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are by far the cheapest, but require handling with great care, as any excess used has a corrosive and destructive effect on the fibres, which results in weak leather. Mild organic acids are much safer, and those generally preferred are lactic, formic, and butyric, although boracic and acetic acids are favoured by some tanners. Butyrate of ammonia is used for the same purpose by a number of French tanners. The same acid bath can be used for a second lot of hides, but sufficient acid should be added to raise the acidity of the liquor to its former standard. It is inadvisable to use one bath more than four or five times. The salt Other kinds of hides and skins require additional treatment, according to the class of leather it is intended to make. Hides to be dressed for such purposes as bags, portmanteaus, cases, harness, belting, and stout uppers are usually steeped in an infusion of hen or pigeon dung. A vat is filled with tepid water, a quantity of the dung, usually about half a pailful, is added and well stirred in the water before putting the hides in. The acid fermentation evolved neutralises the lime, while bacteria multiply and rapidly reduce the rubbery limed hide to a soft, flaccid condition. The hides are then well washed in clear water and scudded, after which they are transferred to the tan pits. "Scudding" is the technical name of an operation performed on hides and skins with a special tool, known as the scudding knife, which consists of a convex piece of slate or vulcanite fitted into a wooden or steel handle (Fig. 20). The hides are placed on the beam, grain side up, and vigorously worked with the knife to scrape off scud (i.e., short hairs, dirt, and soluble lime salts). Both sides of the hides should be scudded for best work. The process of treating hides with excrement is known technically as "bating," Although these processes can only be described as disagreeable, they apparently have no injurious effect on the workmen. Further, the hides and skins are thoroughly cleaned before putting them in the tan liquors, in which the bacterial activity caused by the infusion of dung is quickly arrested. Fortunately, from the hygienic point of view, the use of natural "bates" and "puers," although still extensive, is likely to be superseded everywhere by artificial products. So far there are nearly 2,000 tanneries throughout the world where the artificial bating materials are preferred, German and American tanners being the principal users. The best known artificial bate is "Oropon," which consists of a mixture of pancreatin or trypsin, ammonium salts, and a large quantity of sawdust, the last-named merely acting as a mechanical agent. The enzyme, pancreatin, is the active ingredient, and may be prepared from the intestines of the pig. It has the effect of The patentee and vendor of this proprietary article claims that it is suitable for all classes of leather. Hides for sole leather are sometimes treated with a weak "Oropon" liquor in Continental tanneries and, as a result of the cleansing properties of this bating material and its effect in opening up the fibres, the tannage proceeds rapidly. The use of enzymes for bating was discovered by an English leather manufacturer and chemist, who did not take out a patent for his invention, probably because he had previously patented and worked on a commercial scale a bacterial bate which gives very good results but requires much skill in application. The artificial product, "Oropon," has many advantages over excrements. It is simpler, cleaner, and more rapid in working, and never damages the grain of the skin. On the contrary, great care and experience are needed in using excrements, and the skins may be so badly damaged through negligence as to be almost worthless. Bate burns are fairly frequent when dung is used, and are generally due to hard pieces being insufficiently broken up and diffused in the liquor. Other useful artificial products are: "Erodin," and "Puerine," a patented American product which consists of a weak organic acid and a small proportion of molasses. Possibly, malt enzymes or diastase could be utilised for the manufacture of an artificial bate or puer, although they would not be so effective as animal products. There are two tests to determine the end of the process of bating and puering, although the extent to which the reduction is carried depends on the kind of leather wanted. For this reason, it is not advisable to remove every trace of lime from hides which must possess a certain degree of firmness when finished into leather. Of the two tests, one is chemical and the other mechanical. In the former case, a cross section is made in the thickest part of the hide and a few drops of phenolphthalein are added to the cross section; if the whole of the lime has been removed, no coloration is given, but, if lime be present, a purplish colour is given, which varies in intensity according to the contents of lime in the hide. The other test is made by pressure with the thumb nail, and, if the impression be permanent, the hides or skins are in a sufficiently reduced, or, as it is technically known, "fallen" condition for all practical purposes. The latter test is really only useful when the process has to be carried to its fullest practical extent, as it affords no idea of the intermediate stage. The experienced workman can judge the progress made by appearance and touch. In cases where skins have been puered with excrement it is often necessary, after scudding them, to submit them to a further process before tanning. This is known as "drenching," and consists in treating the skins in an infusion of wheaten bran or pea flour. The acid fermentation produced by these ingredients effectually cleanses the skins by neutralising the last traces of lime and scud, and prepares them in an ideal condition for the process of tanning. The combined processes of bating with Following the processes of bating, puering, or drenching, the skins are washed in water to remove all mechanical impurities, and are then in a perfectly clean condition for tanning. |