530. Plan of Campaigns.—The spring of 1864 found Grant as general in chief of all the Union armies, with Meade at the head of the Army of the Potomac, Sherman at the head of all Federal troops in the West, and General B. F. Butler in immediate command of the Army of the James. Grant chose not to supersede Meade, but decided, while keeping him in the field, to superintend the Eastern campaign in person. The “grand strategy” was that all the Union armies should advance on the 4th of May, and that each should keep its opponents so occupied that no one Confederate army could reËnforce any of the others. The Army of the Potomac was to move directly toward Richmond, attacking the enemy wherever they could be found. Sherman was to push south from Chattanooga with a similar purpose, toward Atlanta, while Butler was to advance up the James River from Fortress Monroe to Richmond. In this way, it was hoped to finish the war in the course of the summer.

531. Advance of Grant toward Richmond.—Grant, with a force of about one hundred and twenty thousand men, crossed the Rapidan and came upon Lee a little south of Chancellorsville. The reports do not reveal exactly the size of Lee’s army, but he probably had about sixty-five thousand men. The Confederates were strongly intrenched, and a hotly contested battle raged for two days, May 5 and 6. It is known as “The Battle of the Wilderness,” since it was fought in a country of tangled thickets. In some cases, so fierce was the fighting, small trees were severed by bullets. Lee could not be dislodged from his strong intrenchments, and Grant, after enormous losses, moved with the bulk of his force by the left flank, and thus forced the Confederates to leave their defenses and fall back to a new line. From the 8th to the 20th various desperate conflicts took place about Spottsylvania, with a similar result. These battles were among the most stubbornly fought of the whole war, the conflict at what is known as the “Bloody Angle” being memorable as an engagement at close quarters, in which large numbers were killed. On the 21st, Grant, undismayed by his failure to break the Confederate lines, again moved by the left flank, and Lee fell back still nearer to Richmond, intrenching himself very strongly on the North Anna River, and later at Cold Harbor. Here, on June 3, Grant made a desperate effort to crush the Confederates by assault, but Lee’s lines could not be broken, and the attempt was as unsuccessful as the Confederate assaults had been at Malvern Hill and at Gettysburg. At Cold Harbor, the Federal loss was over ten thousand, while that of the Confederates behind their intrenchments was only about two thousand. The entire campaign is rendered memorable by the unfailing skill of Lee’s resistance and his remarkable foresight in divining the movements of his enemy, as well as by the splendid energy of Grant’s attacks.

532. Crossing the James.—Skillfully concealing his main movement by continuous attacks along the front, Grant then accomplished the great feat of swinging his entire army across the James, with the purpose of approaching Richmond from the south. There, however, he was confronted with strong fortifications about Petersburg, a city some twenty miles south of Richmond, on the Appomattox River. During McClellan’s campaign and since that time, so carefully had the entire country been fortified under the direction of Lee that Grant found an immediate advance impossible. The defenses in front of Petersburg were at once mined by the Federal forces, and on the 30th of July four tons of gunpowder were exploded under the most powerful of the Confederate works. Guns and men were thrown high into the air; but, by a gross blunder, the troops who were to charge in through the breach were not ready, and before the assault was made, the pit was protected by Confederate cannon brought in from a distance on every side. The Union forces lost many more by this effort, known as the “Battle of the Crater,” than did the Confederates. The best that Grant could do during the rest of the year was to extend his lines to the south so far as to cut the railroad from the southeast, which furnished the Confederates a large part of their supplies, and to drill the new troops that came pouring in from the seemingly inexhaustible North.^[245]

533. Subordinate Movements.—The subordinate movements in the East had rendered Grant very little assistance. In the spring General Butler^[246] had been sent up the James River, with an army of thirty-six thousand men, to attack Richmond from the south, but the major part of his troops were forced by the Confederates into a bend of the river at Bermuda Hundred, and there, as Grant said, were “bottled up.” Sigel and Hunter also had been sent into the Shenandoah Valley for the purpose of taking Lynchburg and then advancing on Richmond from the southwest, but they were defeated by General Early and driven over the mountains into West Virginia. Thus the Confederates secured command of the entire Valley and threatened Washington. Passing over into Maryland early in July, they defeated General Lew Wallace at Monocacy, and then pushed on until Early with his force actually appeared before the defenses north of the capital. But finding these more formidable than he had anticipated, he withdrew without making an attack. Late in July, one of Early’s subordinates, McCausland, burned Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, in consequence of a refusal of the city to pay a ransom of five hundred thousand dollars in greenbacks. The vigor of this policy provoked immediate retaliation. In September Grant sent Sheridan against Early, and the tables were soon turned. Early was defeated in several engagements in September and October; and Sheridan, in accordance with Grant’s orders, desolated the Valley of Virginia so completely that no further supplies could be furnished the Confederate army before another summer.

SHERMAN’S CAMPAIGNS.

534. Sherman’s Advance.—In the West, the movement of Sherman was in some respects similar to that of Grant. The Union force gathered at Chattanooga numbered about one hundred thousand men, while that of the Confederates numbered about ninety thousand.^[247] Sherman’s policy was to attack Johnston’s defenses lightly in front, and by extending his line either to the right or to the left, attack the latter in the flank and oblige him to come out into open battle or to retreat. Johnston, though constantly fortified, instead of fighting vigorously, as Lee was doing, fell back without offering great resistance. This course was justified by the fact that Johnston knew that Sherman’s army must be fed by transportation over a single line of railroad, and by the belief that if Sherman could be drawn into the South, so much of the Union army would be required for guarding trains, and such reËnforcements might be secured by the Confederates as they neared Atlanta, that the two armies might ultimately meet on equal terms. In other words, it seemed obvious to the Confederate commander that the farther south Sherman should be drawn, the weaker he would be. The mistake in this strategy lay in underestimating the resources of the North in furnishing new troops with which to aid in protecting the railroad and keeping up the numbers of the Union force.^[248]

535. Removal of Johnston.—The campaign was in a mountainous country just south of Chattanooga, and great skill was shown by both generals. Johnston was rapidly pushed back until his forces were near Atlanta, and a decisive battle was at hand. But the people of the South, not understanding the merits of Johnston’s method of conducting the campaign, became impatient. President Davis,^[249] who had no partiality for Johnston, yielded to the pressure of public opinion, and, accordingly, just as the Confederates were about to strike their blow, Johnston was removed, and General John B. Hood,^[250] who had the reputation of being one of the most energetic generals in the Confederate army, was placed in command.

536. General Hood’s Methods.—Hood’s fighting qualities, however, in accordance with Sherman’s predictions, at once took the form of rashness. He seemed determined to fight, whether a favorable opportunity offered or not. In three important battles in July, on different sides of Atlanta,^[251] Hood made desperate attempts to beat back the approaching forces, but was unsuccessful. On September 2 he was obliged to evacuate the city, and early in October he adopted the policy of moving around Sherman’s army and attacking the line of supplies. This was done in the hope that Sherman would follow; but the move was exactly what Sherman anticipated and desired. Following for a short distance, he sent on half of his army under General Thomas, while he returned with the other half to Atlanta. Hood pushed on vigorously toward Nashville. At Franklin, south of Nashville, a battle was fought, November 30, between Hood and a part of Thomas’s army under Schofield, in which the Confederates lost heavily.^[252] Thomas made his stand at Nashville and fortified his line with great skill. Remaining long wholly on the defensive, he was much criticised for his delay in attacking; but his answer was that, while willing to turn over his command to another, he would not go out of his defenses to fight a decisive battle until he was ready. The outcome justified his course. On the 15th of December Hood advanced to the attack, and the battle raged for two days; but when the Confederates had spent their force, Thomas ordered his men forward and pushed on so vigorously that Hood’s army was completely broken up and dispersed.^[253] It was the most decisive Union victory of the war. Thus Hood, after losing five battles, had now lost his army.

537. Sherman’s March to the Sea.—As soon as Hood was clearly out of his way, Sherman began preparations for carrying out a plan which had for some time been maturing in his mind. In the spring a movement from Atlanta to Mobile had been contemplated; but Banks had failed to advance upon Mobile from the west, and the plan had been abandoned. Sherman now obtained the consent of Grant to destroy the public works at Atlanta, to break up the railroads so as to cut off Lee’s sources of supply, and then to take his army across Georgia to the sea. This project was undertaken for the purpose of closing in upon Lee from the south and in this manner bringing the war to an end. About the middle of November, Sherman, having burned such parts of Atlanta as might be useful to the enemy, cut all the telegraph wires extending to the north, tore up the railroads in every direction, and then with his army started for the sea. He had about sixty thousand men. These were divided into four divisions and were spread out so that they covered a territory about sixty miles in width. To make repair as difficult as possible, the railroads were destroyed by heating and twisting the rails, and the stations and bridges were burned.

538. Capture of Savannah.—The army reached the sea, December 13, after a march of nearly four weeks. During all this time the people of the North were ignorant of what Sherman was doing. Fort McAllister, at the mouth of the Ogeechee River, was stormed by Hazen’s division of the Fifteenth Corps, and in a single assault of a few minutes was taken. Savannah was besieged, and after eight days the city surrendered, December 21, with a hundred and fifty guns and twenty-five thousand bales of cotton. The army then went into winter quarters, where it remained until February, 1865. Thus Sherman had destroyed the most important Confederate army in the West, had everywhere dispersed opposing troops, and had made transportation of supplies for Lee from the south and west so difficult as to be practically impossible.

NAVAL VICTORIES.

539. Work along the Coast: Fort Fisher.—In the course of the year 1864, much was done along the coast to lessen the number of ports held by the Confederates. The most important of the expeditions were those against Fort Fisher in North Carolina, and Mobile in Alabama. Fort Fisher, which commanded the entrance to Wilmington Bay, had successfully resisted an attack by General Butler and Admiral Porter, but now yielded to a force under General Terry, sent by Grant.

540. The Taking of Mobile.—Even more important was the taking of Mobile. The mouth of the harbor was defended by Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, and the passage to the city was protected by torpedoes and mines. Within the harbor were four powerful Confederate gunboats, including the Tennessee, commanded by Commodore Buchanan, the former captain of the Merrimac. Outside, Admiral Farragut had a fleet of fourteen wooden vessels and four monitors. On the 5th of August Farragut determined to hazard a desperate attempt to run past the forts. The task was not less difficult than the one which had confronted him at New Orleans. In order to have a better means of observing and directing the battle, he had himself lashed to the topmast of the flagship Hartford. The battle that followed was desperate and brilliant. One of Farragut’s vessels was blown up and sunk by a torpedo, but the admiral pushed on past the forts and engaged the Tennessee, which was obliged to surrender. The capitulation of the forts soon followed. After the fall of Wilmington and Mobile, the only port still held by the Confederates was Charleston. Importation of supplies by the Confederates was therefore rendered almost impossible, and many of the Federal vessels engaged in preventing blockade running were released for other services.

541. Defeat of the Alabama: Loss of the Florida and Georgia.—In the course of the same year, the most powerful of the Confederate privateers was destroyed. The Alabama, which under Captain Raphael S. Semmes had taken many Union vessels in all parts of the world, was followed by the Kearsarge, under Captain Winslow, into the harbor of Cherbourg, in the north of France. The ships were about equal in weight and strength. Semmes dared Winslow to a naval duel and his challenge was instantly accepted. The fight occurred on June 19, 1864, and was witnessed by thousands of people on the banks. The firing of the Alabama was much more rapid than that of the Kearsarge, but much less accurate. Within about an hour after the engagement began, the Alabama was found to be in a sinking condition. She struck her flag and soon afterward sank. Captain Semmes was taken from the water by an English yacht and carried to England. Another famous Confederate cruiser, the Florida, was accidentally sunk near Fortress Monroe; and the Georgia was sold and became a merchant vessel under the English flag. All this, however, did not occur until the commerce of the United States had been practically destroyed.

POLITICAL AFFAIRS.

542. Opposition to Lincoln’s Policy.—The suspension of habeas corpus in 1863, and the arrest of Vallandigham and many others, excited great feeling among the opponents of President Lincoln (§§ 512, 528). He was boldly accused of exceeding his constitutional rights, and many newspapers carried on a vigorous battle against him. The history of public sentiment was still more striking in 1864. Early in the year many of the leading Republicans, especially those of the more radical type, thought it would not do to renominate Lincoln. There was a widespread outcry for peace, and the impression became general that peace would be possible if the government would abandon its policy of emancipation. Grant’s Virginia campaign had resulted in great slaughter and had brought sorrow into thousands of households, without bringing him any nearer to Richmond than McClellan had been two years before. Greeley and other prominent Republicans desired a change of policy; but notwithstanding all warnings, Lincoln kept steadily on his course, although at one time he recognized the probability of his defeat for the Presidency.^[254]

543. Effects of Victory.—But these dark hours were soon followed by light. First came Farragut’s exploit in taking Mobile; and then, on the 3d of September, followed the stirring news that Sherman had taken Atlanta. The effect was like magic. Seward, in a speech, September 14, said, “Farragut and Sherman have knocked the bottom out of the Chicago [Democratic] nominations.” Then, as a crowning and thrilling inspiration, came the descriptions of Sheridan’s ride (§ 533) and the complete routing of Early at Fisher’s Hill. A veritable wave of enthusiasm took possession of the North. Lincoln was unanimously renominated, with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee for Vice President; and the election gave them two hundred and twelve votes, as against twenty-one given McClellan, the Democratic candidate.^[255]

544. Results of the Election.—The result of this election and the Federal victories put new vigor into the Union cause. Recruiting went on rapidly, so that the government in the spring of 1865 had more than a million men under arms. The Confederacy had no such reserve power. It had now lost much more than half of its territory; its sources of supplies were cut off, and its armies were confronted from the south, as well as from the north, by overwhelming forces.

545. Changes in the Cabinet.—Lincoln’s first Cabinet contained not only his rivals for the Republican nomination in 1860, but also a number of representative “War Democrats.” When Stanton, who had always been a Democrat, took the place of Cameron (§ 475), it was noticed that the Cabinet contained four Democrats and only three Republicans. When reminded of this fact, Lincoln intimated that he counted for something himself, and could perhaps manage to prevent the administration from becoming Democratic. As time went on, there were many complaints in regard to the supposed lack of harmony in the Cabinet; and the Presidential nominating convention of 1864 requested the President to make the body more homogeneous. This resolution was aimed especially at Montgomery Blair of Maryland, who was Postmaster-General, and Edward Bates of Missouri, the Attorney-General. They soon resigned and were succeeded respectively by William Dennison of Ohio, who had been president of the nominating convention, and James Speed, a prominent lawyer from Kentucky. Salmon P. Chase, who had often been much out of harmony with the President, resigned the Secretaryship of the Treasury, and was succeeded by William P. Fessenden of Maine. When Chief Justice Taney, after long and important service, died, on the 12th of October, there was much anxiety in regard to the appointment to the position thus made vacant—the most important in the gift of the President. Among others, Chase was a very prominent candidate, strongly urged by radical Republicans. The President gave no sign of his intentions until December 6, when, without having consulted any one, he sent to the Senate, in his own handwriting, the nomination of Chase to be Chief Justice. The nomination was immediately confirmed without reference to a committee. The changes in the Cabinet and the appointment of Chase gave great satisfaction.

546. The Thirteenth Amendment.—The last important work of Congress in 1864 was the passage of a joint resolution to submit to the states the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which should forever prohibit slavery throughout the United States. The Proclamation of Emancipation afforded no certainty that after the seceding states had been brought back into the Union, they might not legally reËstablish slavery. This could be prevented only by a Constitutional Amendment. Such an Amendment had been offered in April, and had passed the Senate, but had failed in the House to secure the required two-thirds vote. Now, however, it was recalled, and after a long and memorable debate was duly passed in the required manner (January 31, 1865), amid great enthusiasm on the part of Representatives and auditors. The Amendment, however, before it could be operative, had to receive the approval of three-fourths of the states. The President saw that it would probably fail by one vote, and, in order to secure that vote, he procured the admission of the territory of Nevada as a state.^[256]

References.—Grant’s Memoirs, Vol. II., 177-343, contains the leader’s account of the entire Virginia campaign of 1864; from 344-386, Grant comments on Sherman’s campaign. Sherman’s Memoirs must be consulted for the campaign between Chattanooga and the sea. Rhodes’s History of the United States, Vol. IV., chap, xxiii., gives an admirable account of the political situation. See also various biographies of Lee, especially those by General A. L. Long and General Fitzhugh Lee, as well as the Southern Historical Society Papers and General Joseph E. Johnston’s Narrative of Military Operations. Individual battles are described with great particularity in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, in Dodge’s View, in Old South Leaflets, Vol. III., No. 5, and in Longstreet’s Memoirs of the Civil War in America. See also, for an account of the battle of Mobile, Maclay’s History of the United States Navy, Vol. II., 553-573. For Lincoln’s reËlection, see Stanwood’s Elections, 236-252. See also Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Vol. III., 97, Vol. IV., 247-663; Old South Leaflets, Vol. III., No. 5; Dodge’s View, 270-292, 302-309; J. C. Schwab, The Confederate States of America (1901).