The school book, perhaps the most despised branch of work in the bindery, has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by bookbinder and bookseller. Although everything has been cut down as finely as possible as regards paper and printing, yet the cost of binding must also be cut down, and a profit on the whole is still looked for. Thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery. Folding, sewing, board cutting, trimming, and lettering are all done exclusively by machinery. All finishing work, pressing, headbanding, decorating the paper covers, have fallen off. The cover is always made in advance and the book fixed into it. A good goat-skin is seldom used for the back, almost always split sheep-skin, thereby also saving paring, or the so-called split horse-hide. These latter are put on the market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work. A third-rate marbled paper is used for covering, as prices are not given for better kinds. A stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end papers.

Frequently, in the smaller towns, there are still produced Bible histories, catechisms, and the like in half-leather bindings, tanned sheep-skin, the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many years. The whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to cutting out, in order that it may be cut into backs to the best advantage.

The backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture. The edges are then pared with a sharp knife, the backs pasted, laying every two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying, and the books fixed in the leather backs. For this purpose the books are set in boards previously cut to size. In this case the books take tight backs; the joints are well rubbed down with the folder.

Thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs. The cloth for the backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the backs must be, is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the cutting board, measuring with the eye. Recently, the so-called "taking off," as practised in fancy goods work, has been adopted for the sake of its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers. A large zinc plate is coated with glue, neither too thick nor too thin, the cover is laid face downwards and taken up, so that it is evenly coated all over with the glue or paste. The work requires some practice, but it is very quick and, above all, is neat and clean. The boards are laid upon these strips by a worker (allowing for the thickness of the back), turned in at top and bottom by a second worker, and the books at once fixed in. The backs, still damp, fit very well to the books, the joints are well rubbed in; covering and pasting on are done afterwards.

Where hand sewing must be done, the end papers should be first attached to each first and last section, double in front, single at the end. Sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least, better upon four, so that the two middle ones can be changed each time. In order to expedite the scraping of the bands, the threads are untwisted before pulling out from each other, the loose end need not exceed 1-1/2 cm., as a long band holds no better than a short one, care being taken that it is always firmly pasted down. The drawn-out volumes are placed in batches on top of each other, all bands lying outwards. The projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush, which renders them easy to scrape down. If it is intended to paste down the bands, the whole of the ends might now be pasted, the books lifted off one by one, and the bands pasted over on to the end paper. It is better to leave the ends free and to paste down when glueing up. They then become more thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once, and thus join the boards so much better.

It may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting than with hollow backs, no matter whether leather or cloth be used.

Mounted articles, i.e., placards, maps, drawings, &c., to be mounted on boards or linen, are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery. Things to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole, those that are to be rolled up or folded are mounted on linen. Placards are generally printed on very stout paper, and these should be well damped upon the back with sponge and water before pasting, and only when the paper is perfectly limp and stretched should the pasting be done, otherwise creases are sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting. A piece of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from "drawing." Only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to size and, if necessary, bound.

This binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about 1-1/2 cm. wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured paper and, turning it over, drawing it on to the back with a piece of clean waste paper, and well rubbing down. At the corners the strip is cut obliquely, as in the case of a book, nipped, and turned in. This is done at the first two sides lying opposite to each other. At the other side the strip is laid not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears slightly obliquely, so that the finished corner appears as in the accompanying illustration. Of course, when such work is done in large quantities, another method is followed. For this the board would be cut to size, back and front—1 cm. narrower and shorter—likewise, and the boards bound beforehand. The strips are not turned in at the corners of the first two sides, but the whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut flush. The strips for the other two sides are cut to size, at the same time cutting off the corners obliquely at both sides, then pasted and drawn over the edges. When mounting on large surfaces, one person alone is not able to do the work—there must be some one to render assistance.

Such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper. As the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily, a large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the hand is used for rubbing down.

The finished placard is placed between boards to dry. For hanging them, either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes, about 5 cm. apart, are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers. For doing large quantities it is advisable to procure a machine, the small eyeleting machine, which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time.

Mounting plates, plans, drawings, or maps on cloth is done in the following way: Paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly stretched linen or cotton material; linen being generally used in England. Where such work is frequently to be done, so-called drawing boards ought to be at hand. These are wooden boards, best when made to fit into each other so that they can be enlarged to suit the work in hand.

The board must, of course, be perfectly clean on the stretching side, otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled. If necessary, the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching. The material should be left about 5 cm. larger all round for convenience of stretching and working. The stretching is best done with drawing pins, which may be used again and again for the same work. The method of stretching is as follows: Woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the warp than the woof, therefore stretching is begun in the former direction. The material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side, stretching it firmly at the same time. The material will be drawn outwards a little on the stretched side (Fig. 124). To counteract this, a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side, after having pulled the material over so that the side A forms a straight line. The whole side A is then pinned down, the pins not being more than 5 cm. apart (Fig. 125).

Now draw out the pin on the B side and pin down the whole side, firmly stretching the material all the while, beginning at the middle and working towards the sides (Fig. 126).

The third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre, then in the centre of the halves to right and left, then proceeding with the smaller divisions in the same fashion. The material is pulled far enough to form a straight line (Fig. 127). The last side is well stretched and pinned down as just described. In this way a surface not only entirely free from wrinkles and creases is produced, but the texture of the material will run straight.

In mounting upon cloth, special care must be taken that the paper is perfectly limp and flexible; but this must not be due to its having been too thickly coated with paste.

Large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and must be allowed to lie damp a long time. Attention must be given to the colours, which are apt to run, and also to the proper fitting of the various pieces, as these have often been stretched in various ways in the lithographic press, or through irregular drying have taken unequal sizes. Damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until the whole fits together perfectly.

Maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size. In order that they may fold together well, the various pieces are set slightly apart, the horizontal lines slightly less (1-1/2 mm.), the longitudinal somewhat more, where there are many parts up to 3 mm.

Perfect fitting is here essential, and to insure this it is advisable to mark out the divisions with the folder and rule. This is not necessary for small maps, the eye will then be sufficient guide. Thorough rubbing down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere.

When perfectly dry, the material is taken from the stretcher, the edges accurately trimmed, and the map folded upon the cross lines into one long strip, and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the given size.

The appearance of such a map is greatly improved by sharply pressing awhile, for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each fold.

Such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered with cloth, or a light cover is made, into which the map is so pasted at the back board that it lies ready for use when opened.

Paintings, drawings in colour, or wash drawings cause exceptional difficulties, as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or make the colours run. In such cases smaller sheets are placed between sheets of damp blotting paper, and it is stuck upon the pasted underside. When the object permits it, it is glued on without previous damping. Large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper stretches very much and, on account of its delicacy, is not easily manipulated and is liable to crease. Such work requires several hands. It is necessary to have clear paste, quite free from knots, which has been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup. When at all practicable, the tracing itself is pasted twice, the first pasting will make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste. Two persons lift the tracing and turn it over (for very large pieces four persons are required); the sheet is laid down at one corner, the other three being held up, and the whole gently lowered little by little. One person rubs it down slowly, proceeding from the first corner and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles.

With such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against this are taken. The simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to take hold of these. These strips are removed as the rubbing down progresses, making sure, however, that there is still enough paste left on these places.

Tracings are always mounted upon white paper, even though it has afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth.

Maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided with a roller at top and bottom; these may be stained and varnished or covered with coloured paper. The mounted maps are glued and tacked to the half-round rollers. Where all round rollers are used they should be ordered in halves. The edges of the map are glued between and the two halves then nailed together. Rings are screwed into the top roller for hanging, and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required.

Plates and maps, as also placards, are also varnished. Varnishing is nowadays always done with spirit varnish, which is convenient for working. All papers cannot be simply varnished and done with—the nature of the paper must be taken into consideration. All sized and chromo papers may be varnished without preparation. Many note-papers, especially unsized and copperplate papers, must first be sized, which prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease spots.

The best of all means is glue or gelatine; the former turns the paper somewhat yellow. A thin solution is made, which is laid on warm with a large sponge in long quick strokes. Where colour or ink is to be dealt with, no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced. A second coating, however, may be given after the first has dried. The spirit varnish to be used—called map or photo varnish—is still too thick as sold. It is thinned with 90% spirit of wine to the required consistency until it runs easily from the brush.

Wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used. Two coats of thin varnish are better than one coat of thick.