For better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and covering made on the book itself. This results in a better appearance and a stronger connection between the book and its cover.

It has already been explained (Chap. V., pp. 87-88) how the so-called hollow back is made in boarding.

This kind of back, however, is only used in ordinary binding in half or whole cloth. For leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping paper or thin cardboard is cut. The exact size is taken with a piece of paper across the back from the first to the last section. This strip must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used. The strips—afterwards representing raised bands—are laid upon this packing; these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide, but if this is not to hand, paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick, press lightly, and, when dry, cut out of this material strips not exceeding 2 mm. in width. The position of the bands is carefully measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and the strips are then glued on in their places. The bands are left projecting over the edge until quite dry and at 3 mm. from the edge, and are then pared down to it.

For extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the book itself. A strong—not too thick—packing paper is selected, the back is thinly coated with rather thick glue, and the paper, a little wider than four times the width of the back, is so laid on the back as to leave, say, the first two sheets free. As far as it sticks, the paper is rubbed down, then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last section, brought back tight over the back, and now firmly rubbed down on the strip left free at the first sheet. Exactly at the first sheet the paper is again folded over and pasted over the back, afterwards repeating the preceding glueing process. In this way the paper is folded from the joint and glued three times. The overlapping parts are cut off. The back now consists of four layers, the first of which is glued on to the book, the other three, of course, forming an arch over it, although they themselves are glued together. What is overlapping at top and bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband, care being taken that the back is truly squared. The headband should be nearly but not quite as high as the squares. By so doing, the back will be 1/2 mm. shorter at each end after cutting than the boards. For this work the book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free.

Bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are then glued on with a round.

The backs are covered with cloth or leather. The former is cut the required size, that is, allowing 2 to 3 cm. in width to overlap at each side, glued, the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle, and then placed in the hollow of the left hand. The right hand takes the book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards. When this adjustment has been obtained, the parts overlapping on the boards are pressed down for a time, and after again seeing that the position is right, they are drawn over firmly. It is best to stand the volume on its fore-edge and, using the palms of both hands together, rub the covering material firmly down on the boards. When the back is properly drawn on, the head and tail are turned in. With hollow backs the joints must be well rubbed down. It is necessary to cut off a small piece of the corner of the board at the joints at top and bottom; this may be done either with a sharp knife or shears, and, of course, before the book is covered.

To make the turn-in (on the book), the book is placed with its back on the table, letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the table. Take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head; the right hand, with the help of the folder, turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs it well down without creases or wrinkles. After both pieces have been thus turned in, the back is further worked at the head to give it a good shape.

The same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half leather. In the latter case the leather must, of course, be pared down, as also in half calf or whole leather, the work with these being somewhat more elaborate.

It is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should be given to careful paring of the leather, especially seeing that the leather is not too thick in the joint; if so, it must be reduced to the required thickness. It must be pared at the head so that the turn-over does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back. Leather used for covering books must be worked with paste, and paste only.

It must be drawn tight over the bands, and these should be well rubbed down with the folder. The turning-in is done in the same way, but the overlap—as far as the actual width of the book is concerned—is again drawn out so that it projects about 2 mm. over the headband.

This projecting leather is pressed quite flat—not slant-wise—over the headband, so that seen from above it almost covers the latter.

All half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards next to the head pared down. This is done before covering—it not only makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and opens better.

When the turning-in is finished, the book is opened wide and the boards adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it has already, to a certain extent, a deep groove, and then closed. If no layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in, it may now be placed in the joint, so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and nicely.

The closed book is now "tied up," that is to say, a cord is looped and tied right round the back at the joint. The turn-in is thus drawn in at the pared-down parts. Behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down with the folder to right and left, slightly outwards; whatever may have been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges are rubbed sharp and square with the folder. The book is lying throughout on the paring stone, not upon the press-board.

The foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are pasted on the books. With the former it is necessary to round the backs. This is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like motion. It can easily be done after being once seen. To give the back a good hold on the book from the very outset, the inserted part is pasted narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at this place it firmly adheres to the back.

Backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about 2 cm. long at the joints with a small knife in order to take the "turn-in"; for the rest the work is the same.

Corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already explained for the ready-made cover.

Books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the following way: The glued cloth is laid flat upon the table, the back of the book placed in the centre of it, the book lifted up, lightly pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only, and then sharply rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the folder, rubbing the sides as well. For this, lay the book on the edge of the table so that the back stands clear. If the sides were brought over the boards at once, neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases.

We now come to the finishing of the books, but we must first deal with the fastening of the book into the cover. By covers is understood either a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be made to fit. The latter is the more difficult.

The book, when pulled to pieces, without end papers and sewing, should be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover, thin books, of course, a little more. Thickness of thread and compressing or allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may be.

If the book is ready trimmed, edges finished, pressed—it should always be cloth jointed—it is cased in. A packing is pasted on the back, that is to say, similar to glueing the back, the back is pasted on to the book itself, a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the two first sheets remain free, rubbed down, folded back from the other joint, pasted on the free margin, and the surplus cut off.

In this way, not only is the back pasted over but it gets another covering of paper. The padding of the cover is now rounded, either by drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and fro over a chock fixed in the press. The book must suit the cover so that it fits tight into the joints. The padding of the back is glued, the book laid in, the boards at both sides well drawn over, a covering of paper laid over the back, and then well rubbed down with the flat folder. The pressing that finds so much favour is altogether superfluous, as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back. It is only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are improved by pressing. After the glue has set a little, the end papers are pasted on, i.e., they are pasted over and lie open until thoroughly dry. It is done as follows:—

Insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint, the joint itself getting a thin coat of rather weak glue. The bands, which must remain free although cut off to leave only 2 cm. in length, are laid over the joint and likewise glued. Now lay the book square before you, the open board next the table edge, and with the point of a knife first lift the bands from the cloth joint, lay them taut over the smooth board and smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies smooth and even, taking special care that the bands are not noticeable in the joint through any evenness. The cloth joint is now drawn over and well rubbed down on the board, the latter being at the same time well pressed on the joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge.

The book lies open in this way to dry, but it may be turned, placed on a board, pushed up to the joint, and the other side similarly pasted on.

Plainer bindings, especially school books and publishers' cheap cases, are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and without a cloth joint, whilst here the coloured end paper has still to be pasted down; in the former case proceed as follows:—

The back—without packing—is simply glued over, the packing rounded. The book is properly placed in the cover, and the outside fly leaf—afterwards an end paper—and bands are pasted, the latter at the same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder; the boards are then closed, pressing them over very sharply. The book is turned and the other side done in the same way, and at once pressed.

Where a cloth joint has to be pasted on, a paste-down must be pasted on to the board.

The practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the book is not so good as subsequent pasting down, as they are then less likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges, &c.

The paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint but not so close as to cause it to swell. The counterpart of the fly leaf is pasted on to it, both leaves are cut with a knife close along the joint, for back and front, about 1/2 cm. wide, are pushed up, thinly pasted, and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint. The leaves so hinged in are now raised, the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue, the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder. Immediate pressing is to be avoided, as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out. After a while the pressing is done, of course, when zinc plates—if necessary, polished boards—should be inserted between the end papers, and not too great pressure applied.

If the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back, zinc plates are also used, but between the first and last sheets of the book, so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking to the damp end papers.

Half or whole cloth, half leather, or, generally speaking, all bindings which are not pasted down open, are laid upon a board, pasting thinly with thin paste first one side, then turning the book and pasting the other, and then pressing. In doing quantities, ten may be done before pressing.

Cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each other and pressing in batches between boards. Books with a deep joint where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always pasted down open. Where cloth or leather jointed, this is done in a similar way to boarding in covers, except that the bands need not be considered here, as they have already been seen to. Working the leather well in the joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in the head lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint. Leather joints are always pasted down open with paste, but must, of course, be left lying longer.

The so-called double end papers, that is, without cloth or leather joint, are very effective. Only the best and strongest paper can be used for these. The double sheet, folded in the middle, is narrowly pasted at the back and fixed in the joint of the book—not in the fold of the joint but in the joint made by pressing. This prevents the bend coming on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp creasing, but near it. The half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down; that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size. The end paper is cut off at head and tail of the book, the book opened, the end paper laid over the board, and with the dividers is marked out on the paste-down parallel with the edges, somewhat less than the book. At the fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint, nick in with the scissors up to the mark made, slip under this a zinc plate, and on this cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks. It is understood that the end papers should not be cut off right round the book, otherwise they would become too scant at the fore-edge.

A piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down, thinly coated with glue, the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down; at the same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above. When pasting in the cover, the book is placed square and the joint strongly and briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands.

A paper having a design must, of course, be laid in the same direction as the book. Where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on separately, it must be so arranged that, after the pasting, one leaf forms the counterpart of the other, that is to say, the design must run through and be broken only by the joint. To effect this it is necessary that the paste-down should be first pasted on; when pasting on the fly leaf the work can be made right.

Silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work, the silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted narrowly at the edges.